Glossary of Terms
Alan L. Joplin
Affective Objectives are associated with the emotions,
feelings, and values of the learner.
Autocratic Management is an organizational structure
in which information flows "from the top down"
and each person is told what to do. Managers are bosses
in the traditional sense of the term.
Accountability The ability to show that one has done
what he said he would do.
Alternate plan A secondary strategy to achieve the
objective.
Anecdotal data gathered from the impressions and subjective
reports of relevant people.
Appraisal Evaluation, both internal and external.
This step is helpful and necessary in setting new goals
and objectives.
Autocrat a manager who is using a high task orientation
and a low relationships orientation in a situation
where such behavior is inappropriate and who is, therefore,
less effective; perceived as having no confidence in
others, as unpleasant, and is interested only in the
immediate task.
Baseline data collected at the start of a program or
treatment which furnishes a point of comparison for
assessing results at a later time.
Basic style the way in which a manager behaves as measured
by the amount of task orientation and relationships
orientation he/she uses. The four basic styles are
integrated, dedicated, related, and separated.
Benchmarks objectives which are reviewed periodically
to measure progress toward the larger goal. These
could be considered approximations of the larger goal.
Benevolent autocrat a manager who is using a high task
orientation and a low relationship orientation in a
situation where such behavior is appropriate and who
is, therefore, more effective; perceived as knowing
what he/she wants and how to get it without creating
resentment.
Bureaucrat a manager who is using a low task orientation
and a low relationships orientation in a situation
where such behavior is appropriate and who is, therefore,
more effective; perceived as being primarily interested
in rules and procedures for his/her own sake, as wanting
to control the situation by his/her use, and as conscientious.
Behavioral Objectives specify learning outcomes in precise,
measurable terms.
Cognitive Objectives place primary emphasis on the mental
or intellectual processes of the learner. There are
six levels of cognitive objectives: knowledge, comprehension,
application, analysis,-thesis, and evaluation.
Climate the distinctive atmosphere of every organization;
a dominant mood that prevails. The climate is naturally
affected by how staff members relate to each other;
by what people feel they can (and cannot) do or say.
Co-worker a person with whom a manager works who is
neither his/her superior nor subordinate.
Compromiser a manager who is using a high task orientation
and a high relationships orientation in a situation
that requires a high orientation to only one or neither
and who is, therefore, less effective; perceived as
being a poor decision maker, as one who allows various
pressures in the situation to influence him/her too
much, and as avoiding or minimizing immediate pressures
and problems rather than maximizing long-term production.
Concept a statement of how a plan will be achieved;
a strategy.
Constraint anything that will make it impossible to
accomplish a performance requirement. Only if there
are no possible methods and means for achieving a performance
requirement is a constraint evident.
Continuous loop process a process that is self-correcting
based on its performance or nonperformance. (in general
system theory, this is frequently analogous to an "open
system.")
Control group a group which does not get the experimental
treatment. It should be equivalent to the experimental
group (which gets the treatment). The control group
enables the effect of the treatment to be separated
from incidental effects of time, maturation, etc.
Controls checks that alert management to potential
failure. Budgets, reports, time deadlines, standards
of performance, feedback and personal observation are
controls and should be built into original plans.
Cost benefit analysis an analysis relating costs of
a program (or an outcome) with the benefits to be accrued
from the successful achievement of the outcomes. In
its simplest form, cost benefit analysis asks the two
simultaneous questions of "what do I give?"
And "what do I get?" There are tools for
determining actual or predicted cost benefit, including
the tools of "planning programming budgeting system
(ppbs)," and systems analysis .
Criterion referenced item a test or evaluation item
referring to a specific behavior or performance, ideally
derived from a needs assessment and system analysis.
It provides a realistic alternative to "norm referenced"
test items.
Decision making a course of action whereby one makes
a choice between two or more alternatives.
Developmental Objectives help an individual attempt
new methods and develop new systems, ideas, and improvements.
Democratic Management calls for rule by the majority;
if fifty-one percent of the people vote one way, their
voice prevails.
Dedicated style a basic style with more than average
task orientation and less than average relationships
orientation.
Deserter a manager who is using a low task orientation
and a low relationships orientation in a situation
where such behavior is inappropriate and who is, therefore,
less effective; perceived as uninvolved and passive
or negative.
Developer a manager who is using a low task orientation
and a low relationships orientation in a situation
where such behavior is appropriate and who is, therefore,
more effective; perceived as having implicit trust
in people and as being primarily concerned with developing
them as individuals.
Direct services those services given in face to face
contact with clients, i.e.., Counseling, teaching a
class.
Dominant elements those elements in a particular situation
which make the strongest demands on a manager's basic
style.
Driving forces those which "push" in a particular
direction. They tend to initiate change and keep it
going.
Educational system planning the identification of all
requirements for meeting identified, documented needs.
It includes the use of the tools associated with needs
assessment and system analysis. When it is completed
all the requirements and an identification of possible
solution alternatives for designing, implementing,
and achieving a responsive and successful educational
system are present.
Essential elements of information (eei) the external
information, phrased in question form and used in conducting
planning.
Effectiveness the ability of an organization to achieve
its objectives with the minimum cost.
Element strength the relative strength of a dominant
element in a particular situation expressed on a scale
of one to ten.
Ethics the study of conduct between individuals.
Evaluation a judgment or decision as to the degree
to which a program, service, or project has achieved
its objectives at any given time, or of the degree
to which it is congruent with the overall goals or
values from which it ensues.
Evaluation of relevance obtaining feedback on the extent
to which a project meets needs.
Execution the "doing" step; the fourth step
of the management process.
Executive a manager who is using a high task orientation
and a high relationships orientation in a situation
where such behavior is appropriate and who is, therefore,
more effective; perceived as a good motivating force
and a manager who sets high standards, treats everyone
somewhat differently, and prefers team management.
External strategies involves actions taken by an organization's
staff in conjunction with or to influence outside groups,
individuals, agencies, institutions, who are part of
the force field and have an impact on whether or not
the organization reaches its goals.
Feasibility capability of being carried out or completed
successfully with predicted success significantly greater
than chance.
Feedback the process of transferring output back into
input. It is the process in which the factors that
produce a result are themselves modified, corrected
or strengthened by that result.
Force field the "life space" of a project.
This includes the physical, social and psychological
forces which the actors (staff, clients, etc.) Perceive
as affecting the organization or institution.
Formal organization a group of offices and roles exemplified
in the table of reorganization and established for
a specific goal or purpose.
Formative evaluation the determination of "in
process" or ongoing activities and results, including
a determination of the extent to which processes and
procedures are working or have worked in meeting overall
objectives and requirements. It also supplies criteria
for "in process changes " in an operating
system.
Function analysis the analysis of each of the elements
(functions) in the mission profile which shows what
is to be done to complete each function. Function
analysis is like a miniature mission analysis; that
is, specific to a smaller part of the overall problem.
Like the mission analysis, it includes performance
requirements (specifications for the successful accomplishment
of each function in the mission profile). Function
analysis, however, depicts the sub junctions in the
order and relationship necessary to successfully accomplish
each function.
Function flow block diagram the diagrammatic representation
of functions that show the order and relations among
functions. The order is shown by the numbers and the
solid lines.
Function one of a group of related outcomes (or products
or sub products) contributing to a larger outcome (or
product).
Goal attainment scaling a measure of treatment outcome
based on the degree to which predetermined treatment
goals have been achieved.
Goal(s) something that an organization is trying to
accomplish. They express broad and general aims.
Grapevine the informal communication network of an
organization, known for its ability to cut across all
levels of a structure and for its speed.
Humanistic Organizational Management is an organizational
structure which views a community as all those individuals
having a vital interest in the educational system and
considers the educational manager an effective human
being whose primary function is to facilitate the educational
process.
Humanistic management system a collection of values
based on the belief that the individual seeks to become
more of a human being.
Indirect services which affect clients indirectly,
such as consultation to teachers, research, education
through mass media.
Influence the ability to cause things to happen indirectly,
through persuasion or coalition with others.
Informal feedback data about the results of staff actions
which are picked up casually and in daily interactions,
including impressions and communications.
Informal organization the clustering of individuals
into spontaneous groups by choice rather than by assignment
in the organization.
Integrated style a basic style which combines more
than average task orientation and more than average
relationships orientation.
Integration of feedback integration refers to the change
in an organization as a result of the feedback inquiry
into its behavior or direction.
Internal strategies have to do with activities within
the organization.
Leader a person seen by others as being primarily responsible
for achieving group objectives.
Leader effectiveness the extent to which the leader
influences his/her followers to achieve group objectives.
Leadership a process in which an individual takes initiative
to assist a group to move toward production goals that
are acceptable.
Management the coordination of all resources through
the process of planning, organizing, leading, and controlling
in order to attain stated objectives.
Management by objectives the setting of objectives,
the utilization of these objectives in the management
process, and the measurement of both individual and
organizational performance.
Management of conflict the idea that conflict is a
valuable source of untapped human energy and can be
utilized to improve the atmosphere for growth of adults
in an organization.
Management a process for meeting needs.
Manager a person occupying a position in a formal organization
who is responsible for the work of at least one other
person and who has formal authority over that person.
Managerial effectiveness the extent to which a manager
achieves the output requirements of his/her position.
Maintenance Objectives help an individual meet his regular,
ongoing, recurring jute activities.
Managerial skills three skills required for managerial
effectiveness; situation management, situation sensitivity,
and style flexibility.
Managerial style an assessment of the appropriateness
and, therefore, the effectiveness of a particular basic
style in a situation.
Methods means analysis the determination of possible
methods and means (strategies and tools) for accomplishing
each performance requirement and a listing of the relative
advantages and disadvantages of each.
Mission analysis a set of four related tools used for
analyzing the requirements of a system that would,
if satisfied, meet the identified need. The analysis
identifies requirements (or specifications) for meeting
the needs and the interrelations among the requirements;
it also identifies potentially useful methods and means
for meeting each requirement. The four related tools
of system analysis are mission analysis, function
analysis, task analysis, and methods means analysis.
These tools are used to define the requirements (and
thus define the problem) in increasing levels of detail
and refinement.
Mission profile the process for identifying, for the
problem selected, the elements of (1) where are we
going? (2) what criteria will we use to let us know
when we have arrived? And (3) a management plan to
show what functions must be performed to get us from
where we are to where we are to be. This management
plan is usually depicted in the form of a flow chart
called a mission profile.
Mission objective an objective that measurably states
the specifications for determining when we have successfully
reached where we should be. This performance objective
has four elements (1) what is to be done to demonstrate
completion? (2) by whom is it to be demonstrated? (3)
under what conditions is it to be demonstrated? And
(4) what criteria will be used to determine if it has
been done?
Mission the overall job to be done to meet the identified
and documented needs.
Missionary a manager who is using a high relationships
orientation and a low task orientation in a situation
where such behavior is inappropriate and who, therefore,
is less effective; perceived as being primarily interested
in harmony.
Need(s) are a deficiency. They suppose a lack of something
requisite, desirable, or useful, a condition requiring
supply or relief. The needs statement of an organization
may include a problem in the community which should
be rectified, a deficiency which needs to be filled,
or it may state a requirement for continued growth.
Needs assessment methods provide the basis for determining
what types of services are required to serve the community
most effectively. These methods fall into three broad
categories (1) social and health indicator approaches;
(2) community survey approaches; (3) non survey techniques.
Objectives(s) are the specific aims of an organization.
An objective indicates by when, how much, how well
the goal is to be achieved, and how it is to be measured.
While a goal may indicate a general direction, objectives
provide specific targets. A specific statement of achievement
that defines and communicates what will be different,
by when and how measured. effectiveness standards
which are as specific, as time bounded and as measurable
as possible.
Obstacles include the restraining forces which are
keeping the desired action from happening and the driving
forces which are operating to strengthen opposing actions.
That, forces or factors which hold the program back,
impedes its progress or moves it in the direction opposite
of organizational goals.
Objectives Hierarchy is an organization of educational
objectives with the basic beliefs about the aims of
education being at the top or first.
Indicators of Attainment help to increase the precision
and validity of the direct measures within learning
objectives.
Organizational-wide Objectives are the broad qualitative
statements of purpose directed toward the ultimate
aim of the school system. There are two types, instructional
and supportive.
Operational gaming a variation of simulation usually
characterized by the assumption of roles by people
in a given (hypothetical) context or situation.
Organization a group of people bound together in a
formal relationship to achieve organizational goals.
Organizing for action planning an experience in advance,
deciding on a strategy, and allocating five resources
(manpower, money, material, time and authority), beginning
with the target objective to be achieved and plotting
backward in order to foresee all possible pitfalls.
Outcome evaluation assessing whether stated goals and
objectives are being met.
Parallel functions that can go on simultaneously or
in the absence of a required order of accomplishment.
Performance requirement a measurable specification
for outcome. There may be two types of performance
requirements that tell what the end product will look
like or do, and another type that identifies specifications
that are "given" relative to the manner in
which the product is to be produced.
Personal effectiveness the extent to which a manager
achieves his/her own private objectives.
Performance Objectives (for management) state what a
person is expected to do, for what he is accountable,
and for what he will be evaluated.
Problem Solving Objectives help an individual solve
a current management problem.
Participative Management calls for individual responsibility
and accountability. The designated leader works closely
with all members of his group in encouraging their
active participation in the functions of management,
but he has the final authority for decision making.
Plan a projection of what is to be accomplished to
reach valid and valued goals.
Planning the analysis of relevant information from
the present time and the past and an assessment of
probable future developments.
Planning cycle the ongoing function of planning in
an organization, utilizing all five steps of the management
process.
Power the ability to compel things to happen, or to
cause them to happen by an order or directive.
Primary source immediately identified resources for
the gathering of information in order to answer eei
questions.
Prioritize to rank in order of importance.
Problem a documented discrepancy selected for resolution.
Procedural evaluation keeping track of how accurately,
efficiently and effectively a project's strategies
are being implemented.
Procedural feedback involves analysis of the efficiency
and effectiveness of strategies.
Process the application of the ways and means for achieving
any result or outcome.
Program an integrated activity or set of activities,
including the combination of personnel, equipment,
facilities, finances, etc., Which together constitute
an identifiable means to accomplish some general goal
or set of goals. A set of related organizations, resources,
and/or activities directed to the accomplishment of
a defined set of goals. A program may encompass a
number of projects.
Program development a cyclical system of program planning
and assessment. It describes sequential steps which
can be applied to a variety of programs (particularly
those in human services) to improve their efficiency,
effectiveness and relevance. The key to this process
is self study.
Program evaluation review technique (pert) one of several
network based tools for planning the implementation
of an educational system. These tools, including cpm
(critical path method), are timelines, sequential graphic
representations of milestones or events which can show
the consequences of changes in implementation activities,
including changes in the categories dollars, time,
and resources.
Project a time limited, integrated activity or set
of activities funded as a unit. Together these activities
constitute an identifiable means to accomplish some
task or tasks.
Punitive management system a collection of values held
by administrators who use fear tactics such as threats
to job security, coercion, loss of status, questioning
of loyalties.
Qualitative feedback non numerical feedback which relies
on clinical analysis or description.
Quantitative analysis/evaluation numerical information
gathered in terms of a specific hypothesis.
Random selection which is done on the basis of chance
rather than by design in order to obtain an unbiased
result.
Related style a basic management style with less than
average task orientation and more than average relationships
orientation.
Relationships orientation the extent to which a manager
has personal job relationships; characterized by listening,
trusting, and encouraging.
Reliability the degree to which a measurement or instrument
can be relied upon to give consistent results.
Research design a detailed, comprehensive plan for
carrying out a research or other project; an experimental
procedure which is amenable to statistical analysis.
Resource any force which furthers the realization of
an organizational goal or objective. It may be a person,
an institution, a physical force, a psychological force,
a source of information or education, money, etc.
Restraining forces are analogous to barriers or walls.
They prevent or retard movement. They do not "push
back," but only "hold back."
Sample a limited number of observations, usually taken
systematically or at random, made for the purpose of
inferring some attribute of the larger whole.
Secondary source clues or signs that may indicate answers
to essential questions when direct access to the question
is denied.
Self-actualization a structure of human needs in which
the last stage is characterized by a need to become
one's self.
Self study getting feedback on the outcomes of actions
taken in regard to programs and modifying these actions
on the basis of this feedback.
Separated style a basic management style with less
than average task orientation and less than average
relationships orientation.
Series functions related to one another in linear and
dependent fashion. An example might be Christmas tree
lights.
Simulation the building and using of a model of a real
or predicted event or situation.
Situation elements five elements through which all
of the situation demands on a manager are expressed
organization, technology, superior, coworkers, and
subordinates.
Situation management skill in changing the managerial
style so that effectiveness increases.
Situation sensitivity appraisal of situation elements
in terms of task orientation and relationships orientation
demands.
Statistically significant difference a difference so
great it would occur by chance less than 5 percent
of the time (.05 level) or 1 percent of the time (.01
level).
Statistics a collection of quantitative data. A branch
of mathematics dealing with the collection, analysis,
interpretation, and presentation of masses of numerical
data. The purpose of such analysis is usually to make
a prediction about a larger number of occurrences or
an ongoing process, on the basis of sample observations.
Strategy maps out how one will proceed, what the staff
members actually do, how much time they will spend
doing it, and where they should be at a given time.
The strategy should specify who, what, when, why.
Style appraisal skill ability to appraise others management
style correctly.
Style awareness the degree to which a manager can appraise
his own style correctly.
Style distortion perceiving more or fewer occurrences
of a particular style than actually exist.
Style drift varying one's basic style behavior inappropriately
so that managerial effectiveness
Decreases.
Style flexibility skill in varying one's basic management
style behavior appropriately to a changing situation
so that managerial effectiveness increases.
Style resilience maintaining a single, appropriate,
basic style based on all styles used.
Style rigidity maintaining a single inappropriate basic
style so that managerial effectiveness decreases.
Subordinate a person over whom a manager has authority
and for whose work he/she is responsible.
Summative evaluation the customary mode of educational
evaluation wherein final outcomes or results are determined.
Superior a person having authority over a manager and
responsibility for his/her work.
System approach a process by which needs are identified,
problems are selected, requirements for problem solution
are identified, solutions are selected from alternatives,
methods and means are obtained and implemented, results
are evaluated, and required revisions to all or part
of the system are made so that the needs are eliminated.
System the sum total of parts working independently
and working together to achieve required results or
outcomes, based upon needs.
Systems analysis a tool for the selection of the most
effective and efficient alternative actions based on
alternative resource cost and benefit and a consideration
of uncertainty.
Task orientation the extent to which a manager directs
his/her own and his/her subordinate's efforts; characterized
by initiating, organizing and directing.
Task analysis the lowest level of system analysis.
Task analysis shows, usually in tabular form (rather
than flow chart form), the units of performance associated
with each sub function.
Team a group of people united in the pursuit of a common
goal for the satisfaction of their personal needs.
Team building a broad label attached to many strategies
in which the participants are members of a single work
group.
Ultimate Objective is a brief, concise statement of
the educational institutional purpose as derived from
its philosophy.
Unit Objectives are statements of purpose that pertain
to various educational and supportive units. They are
directed toward system wide objectives.
Validity the degree to which a measurement accurately
reflects the item being measured.
