v1n1 Getting High Employee Performance
Management Notes Online
August & September 1996
Alan L. Joplin, PublisherGetting High Employee Performance
A critical outcome in management is the attraction
of the necessary numbers and types of employees to
the organization. Retention of employees and favorable
attendance patterns represent forms of employee commitment
to the organization, and they facilitate the performance
of job tasks without interruption. Employees agree
to join, and continue to work for an organization as
long as their needs are adequately satisfied. Organizations
view employee job satisfaction as an important outcome
for several reasons:
1. It may be easy to recruit if applicants perceive
a high likelihood that
their needs will be fulfilled.
2. Better satisfied employees may be more willing
to remain with the organization, and they may even
have more favorable attendance patterns.
Other outcomes may also be important to the organization.
One example is that of employees' mental and physical
well-being. Such factors as stress and accidents experienced
by employees on the job are receiving increased attention.
Undertaking a program to improve employee performance
must be effective in doing so, but may not have much
of an effect on satisfaction one way or another.
These activities must be designed for, and targeted
toward, the specific outcomes the organization wants
to influence. Falling between activities and outcomes
are individuals and the jobs they perform. Individuals
have varying abilities to do such things as performing
tasks effectively and attending work regularly. They
also have varying degrees of motivation.
Ability and motivation do not exist in a vacuum. Rather,
they exist within the context of the job the employee
is performing. Accompanying requirements are certain
rewards offered by the job, such as pay, benefits,
co-workers, challenge, amount of responsibility, and
opportunity for promotion. Each reward has the potential
both to influence motivation and satisfy employee needs.
Human resource activities reflect management's personnel
policies, programs and procedures. They are designed
to influence both directly and indirectly the match
between individuals and jobs.
Jobs must be analyzed to identify the ability requirements
and the rewards associated with the job, and how these
rewards can be used to motivate the employee. Results
should be used as a way to develop a plan for improvement
of performance areas. Such a plan can be useful in
guiding the employee to higher levels of future performance.
Focusing on outcomes logically suggest that their
characteristics be systematically assessed. Results
of the assessment will indicate how effective the employee
has been in the past. Human resource planning attempts
to raise and answer the critical questions such as
which training might be necessary, how to recruit necessary
staff, and what rewards work, to only mention a few.
GETTING GOOD ATTENDANCE AND RETAINING IT Many factors influence whether employees attend work
on any particular day. The most immediate causes are
the employee's ability to attend, and motivation to
attend. A model of employee attendance should always
enclude:
SatisfactionHealth
Attendance IncentivesFamily Situation
Motivation to AttendTransportation
Ability to Attend
Employee Attendance
The major opportunity to control absenteeism comes through
the employee's motivation to attend. Managers often
try to influence motivation through direct policies
and practices regarding attendance. Most common are
policies against voluntary absenteeism, frequently
combined with penalties for offenders. More promising
results come from organizations that have effectively
experimented with the use of positive rewards for good
attendance. Although not always successful, such policies
often reduce absenteeism and increase retention.
Another approach is no-fault absenteeism, which recognizes
between voluntary and involuntary absenteeism. No-fault
absenteeism makes no attempt to determine whether the
absenteeism was voluntary or involuntary.
Advantages are:
1. Improved attendance.
2. Placing responsibility for attendance squarely on the employee.
3. Reduced supervisor time in determining if the excuse was legitimate
Some organizations are taking a second look at traditional
paid sick leave policies. Recommendations to reduce
the use of sick leave typically involves some positive
rewards if sick days are accumulated rather than taken.
Attendance is contingent on many factors. Some of
these are outside the control of the individual and
hence are essentially outside of management's ability
to influence. Positive rewards for good attendance,
perhaps combined with negative sanctions for absenteeism,
can lead to improved attendance.
PROVIDING FOR EMPLOYEE SAFETY
The specific components of programs to change unsafe
conditions vary from situation to situation, but there
are four basic elements that should be a part of most
programs. These four elements are:
1. Defining Unsafe Conditions: Obviously, it is necessary
to define what constitutes unsafe conditions before
they can be changed. Doing so is primarily a matter
of establishing safety standards. Many of these standards
have been defined by the OSHA Act.
2. Identifying Unsafe Conditions: Periodic inspection
must be made to determine which conditions do not meet
safety standards. The inspection system is a crucial
element, for evidence clearly shows that the more thorough
and systematic the inspection, the better the safety
performance of the organization.
3. Taking Corrective Action: After identifying unsafe
conditions, corrective action must be planned and
implemented. In some instances this action will be
straight forward. At other times, however, corrective
actions may be increasingly complex, particularly
if they involve extended periods of time and large
financial resources such as the purchase of new machinery
or equipment.
4. Establishing Adequate Controls: Corrective action
may not necessarily be effective in reducing accidents.
Some corrective actions may fail because they were
based on initially inadequate or inappropriate standards.
The need for inspection and record keeping is clear,
this time as mechanisms for program control.
DEALING WITH HEALTH AND STRESS FACTORS
Health programs in organizations are designed to improve
employees' physical well-being. By doing so, it is
hoped that there will be positive impact on the human
resource outcomes. In addition, reduction in health
care cost will occur. This is becoming increasingly
important in many organizations. No single model of
a health program exist, and most have multiple components.
Relatively little is known about the effectiveness
of health programs in influencing the human resource
outcome and reducing cost.
EMPLOYEE STRESS
Given the complex causes and effects of stress, as well
as wide differences among employees in their reaction
to it, how can the organization reduce stress levels
for its employees? One approach is to minimize the
occurrence of stressors in the organization. At a
more general level, this approach would suggest that
all human resource policies and programs be designed
and evaluated partially from the standpoint of how
well they serve to reduce stressor levels.
Another approach to stress management would be to work
directly with employees, emphasizing how they can better
cope with stress. Organizations are increasingly providing
such coping mechanisms in the form of employee assistance
programs. The overall objective of these programs
is to provide treatment to "troubled employees"
so that they will be able to function normally and
remain as productive members of the organization.
Employee assistance programs were established to deal
with problems of employee alcoholism but, other problem
areas have been incorporated since then, i.e., drug
abuse, emotional counseling, family and marital counseling,
financial and legal counseling, and career counseling.
KEEPING THEM SATISFIED
Before management can develop policies and practices
to increase employee satisfaction, or maintain existing
levels if they are found to be acceptable, information
must be obtained from the work force. An accurate assessment
of employee satisfaction ordinarily requires a more
formal procedure. Satisfaction surveys are often conducted
to get systematic information from employees. Satisfaction
surveys can provide information on how employees feel
about their jobs and the organization.
Employee expectations may be raised simply because employees
are asked to participate in the survey process. Failure
to follow-up on the survey with appropriate managerial
action may result in lower employee satisfaction than
existed before. Survey feedback will likely have
a positive impact on employee attitudes.
Some employees who received feedback were most likely
to:
1. Believe management was doing something.
2. Be Satisfied with the procedures.
_____________________________________________________________________________________________
Management Notes is published six times a year
a year by Voices of the Tribe. Editorial offices
are located at 933 Washington - Davenport, Iowa 52804/USA.
The Purpose of this publication is to provide readers
with down-to-earth management information, ideas and
techniques they can put into action to motivate employees
and spur productivity.
Back to document index
Original file name: v1n1 - converted on Sunday, 8 June 1997, 22:28
v1n2 Characteristics of Good Managers
Management Notes Online
October & November 1996
Alan L. Joplin, Publisher
Characteristics of Good Managers
Productive organizations do not happen by accident;
they develop through some one or some persons making
the right decisions, influencing the right people and
avoiding the many managerial mistakes that can hold
people back. Operating an organization requires managers
to have varied knowledge, skills and a set of clear
and distinct characteristics essential for successful
and sound organizational management.
Here are some characteristics which have been considered
as being those of good managers.
1. Keeping abreast of developments in your field. Be
the expert in the your field; the job will become more
interesting and worthwhile. Techniques: Prepare for
advancement--accept managerial training when it is
offered; do not underrate your technical skills; expose
yourself to new ideas; look for ways to self-improvement
and growth on the job.
2. Do not confine yourself to your specialty. You will
have better opportunities for promotions; the higher
you go, the better the financial return; your career
will be much more interesting. Techniques: Set high
goals--use the million-dollar personal-success plan--do
not limit knowledge to a single specialty--learn everything
there is to know about the organization.
3. Seek higher responsibility or take responsibility
for your own actions. Learn to assume the initiative;
you will increase your professional stature--you will
gain the respect and confidence of superiors; you will
have the cooperation and support of subordinates.
When you look for responsibility, you will find it.
Techniques: Know the cardinal responsibilities of
the job, do every task as well as possible; have the
courage of your convictions; assume responsibility
for your actions; ask for diversified management assignments.
4. Make sound and timely decisions. People will have
confidence in your leadership; people will trust your
decisions; you will become known as an expert trouble
shooter. Techniques: Do the worrying before placing
the bet.
Ask yourself these five questions first.
1. Do I have to make this decision?
2. What do I have to decide?
3. When must I decide?
4. What else do I need to know?
5. How shall I make this decision?
5. Conduct personal inspections properly. Increased
and improved production will result from proper inspections;
improved safety conditions will result from proper
inspections; better housekeeping is another advantage;
improved employer-employee relationships. Techniques:
Ask if the right people have the answer--does the
supervisor really have things under control? Check
the obvious things--they are so often overlooked.
6. Make sure the job is understood, supervised, and
accomplished. People will respond quickly to your
concerns; people will do their best; you will have
more time for your own work. Techniques: Make sure
the need for an order exists; issue the correct order;
never issue an order you cannot enforce; disguise orders
as suggestions or requests; know what is wanted before
issuing an order; use clear, concise, simple language;
have oral orders repeated to be sure they are understood;
use the established chain of authority to issue orders;
encourage questions from subordinates, ask them questions.
7. Do not waste time on details or work that belongs
to someone else. You will gain the respect of employees;
you will develop initiative and resourcefulness in
people; you will not be surrounded by a bunch of "yes
people."
8. Assess your performance realistically. Learn to be
honest with yourself; consolidate strengths and eliminate
weaknesses; assess your performance realistically,
ask yourself these questions: Do I give my boss problems
or solutions? Do I try to get all the facts first?
Do I use all available resources to get the job done?
Do I try to slough off the details? Do I panic easily?
Are my reports based on actual results? Do I meet
deadlines? Do I finish the job?
9. Going for the maximum. Do not accept the minimum--people
will give their maximum efforts; production will go
up; costs and expenses will go down--this means increased
profit, prestige, and promotions.. Techniques: Set
a high standard of performance for the organization--do
not accept the present system as the best or only way;
encourage your employees to better the system; help
people to set goals for themselves--make a person proud
of his/her job.
10. Do not use your management position for personal
gain. Employees will trust you and give admiration
and respect. Techniques: Use managerial resources
for their intended purposes; practice the old-fashioned
virtue of honesty--one must follow the rules, too;
give credit to your subordinates for the work they
do; develop the character trait of unselfishness.
11. Always tell the truth--Always keep your word.
People will believe what you say; you will gain the
reputation of being dependable and not have to remember
every word said; you will be respected. Techniques:
Develop moral courage; never make a promise which
cannot be kept; always carry through with announced
punishment; learn how to be thought of as being dependable;
learn how to develop the character trait of integrity.
12. Do not try to be liked--Try to be respected. You
will not have to put on a false front; you can be yourself;
and will not have to use soft soap and flattery; you
will not have to win any popularity contests and can
just be yourself subordinates will do much better
work; they will willingly carry out your wishes and
desires; they will give their loyalty, cooperation
and respect. Negative techniques one should avoid:
Do not accept favors from subordinates; do not try
to make popular decisions; do not be soft about enforcing
discipline; do not place yourself in a compromising
position with employees. Positive techniques one can
use: Know the job; conduct yourself as a gentle person
at all times; have a sense of humor; be loyal to both
superiors and subordinates.
13. Cooperate with your employees. Employees will
cooperate; even problem employees will cooperate, too;
they will respect and have confidence in you and will
give their loyalty, and wholehearted support; they
will work with initiative, ingenuity, and enthusiasm;
they will work together as a team; they will feel like
they belong; they will work as hard as necessary to
get the job done. Techniques: Give of yourself; give
employees a second home in the organization. Four
techniques you can use to give cooperation to employees:
Give them a chance to participate in management;
give them the opportunity to help make the rules;
give them a chance to take part in decisions; hold
weekly conferences.
14. Ask subordinates for their advice and help. They
will feel a part of the team; identify people of above-average
ability; give employees a sense of importance; employees
will put their imagination, initiative, and ingenuity
to work. Techniques: Get in the proper frame of mind;
make employees feel it is their problem too; encourage
individual thinking; make it easy for them to communicate
their ideas; follow through on an idea; do not forget
the reward.
15. Develop a sense of responsibility in subordinates.
One will develop confidence and respect between
oneself and his/her subordinates; you can cut supervision
to the bare minimum; subordinates will put their initiative
to work; there will always be a pool of trained manpower
available. Techniques: Allow employees freedom of
expression; use mission-type orders as much as possible;
give each person the responsibility to learn his/her
superior's job; give responsibility and authority together;
back decisions; allow methods to be put to work--hold
the person accountable for the results.
16. Emphasize skill. One will gain these benefits.
Concentrate on results, not methods; production will
go up; costs and expenses will go down; you will attract
a better class of employees; employees will put their
initiative to work; they will give their maximum efforts;
employee morale and esprit de corps will be high; you
will have fewer managerial problems. Techniques: Give
the employee a job to do, then let them do it; challenge
the person to beat your system; let the person improve
their own job methods; learn how to emphasize skill
by making the work meaningful.
Techniques for effective rule making:
1. When rules are made, concentrate on results to be
obtained, not the methods to be used.
2. A good rule is to consider the health, safety and
welfare of the employees.
3. A good rule will help to increase production and decrease
costs and expenses.
4. Employees should be stimulated by the rules to use
their initiative and give their best efforts.
5. Good rules should improve employee morale and esprit de corps.
6. Good rules should improve a person's individual proficiency on the job.
7. Good rules should also raise overall organizational efficiency.
8. Good rules should reduce managerial problems.
17. Keep criticism constructive. You will gain peak
performance , production and profits. Twelve questions
you can ask to achieve these benefits: When something
goes wrong, do I tend to assume who is at fault? Do
I do my best to get all the facts first? Do I make
clear to the person his/her specific offense? Do I
control my temper when criticizing a person? Do I
always talk things over in private? Do I praise before
I criticize? Do I share responsibility for the person's
mistakes? Do I listen to the person's side of the
story, too? Do I allow a person to retain his/her
dignity? Do I suggest specific steps to prevent reoccurrence
of the mistakes? Do I keep accurate records? Do I
forgive and forget?
18. Pay attention to employee gripes and complaints.
You will get to know and understand each employee
better--even though one is the manager, and employees
will like it when you listen to them--they will know
you are really interested in them--you will find out
what they really want when you listen to them. Techniques;:
Listening to problems is a manger's responsibility;
learn how to.
19. Keep employees Informed. You will encourage their
Initiative and enthusiasm: the well-informed employee
is a better employee--you will get rid of rumors--you
will gain a persons respect, cooperation and support.
Techniques: Let People know exactly where they stand--if
you do not Like a person's work, tell the person so;
learn how to praise a person properly--tell him/her
about organizational plans; let close assistant in
on plans at an early stage; learn how to eliminate
misunderstandings; let employees know of any changes
that will effect them.
20. Treat subordinates as Individuals. Employees will
be your friends--none of them will be your enemies:
they will admire and respect you; they will do what
you want; production will go up; costs, expenses, employee
grievances will go down. Techniques: Learn how to
treat subordinates as Individuals--know each person
by his/her first name; Praise employees; give a pat
on the back; show respect for knowledge and skills;
make an honest effort to really know employees--match
talents to the Job.
21. Train an assistant to take over. You will always
be ready for promotion; you will have a person who
can run the place in your absence; you will have more
time for other managerial duties--you can devote some
time to image-building activities. Techniques : Make
the decision to develop an assistant to take your place--pick
the right person for the job.
Qualities you should look for in an assistant:
1. A person who is willing to learn from their mistakes.
2. A person who can learn fast and is anxious to get ahead.
3. A person who can think for him/herself.
4. A person who has the ability to work with people
5. A person who can get along with others
6. A person who can give them his/her trust and confidence.
7. A person who has initiative and the ingenuity of a leader.
Learn how to delegate responsibility to an assistant:
1. Give a complete picture of the job.
2. Let the person know what you are doing.
3. Add responsibility gradually.
4. Do not hold tight reins on person.
5. Give employees the authority needed to carry out
their responsibilities.
Managers who maintain these characteristics tend not
to end the day in total exhaustion and nervousness;
for they would have let people carry the load, they
would have made life easier and pleasant for all, and
they would have been more productive and less costly.
v1n4 THE PLANNING PROCESS
Management Notes Online
February & March 1997
Alan L. Joplin, Publisher
THE PLANNING PROCESS
The Definition
Planning is a systems approach to maneuvering a project
over time through its environment to achieve prescribed
aims. Further, it is not what should be done in the
future, but what current decisions must be made now
in light of their futurity; or, what future developments
must be included in thinking and doing; what time spans
have to be considered; and how they can be converged
into a simultaneous decision in the present. (Peter
Drucker, 1959).
The Foundation
Three underlying factors cannot be overlooked in the
development of plans:
o The project's organizational socioeconomic purpose.
This means the underlying end which society expects
if the former is to survive.
o Values of the project manager/director. The values,
ideas, philosophies and codes, ethics, and moral standards
which are unique are basic premises in planning. How
he/she treats employees and the working conditions
instituted are two indicators.
o Studies of the environment. A cardinal purpose of
planning is to discover future opportunities and make
plans to exploit them. Correspondingly, basic to long-range
planning is the detection of obstructions that must
be removed. To discover these, the project manager
or director must have an objective understanding of
the strengths and weaknesses of the project. Therefore,
information on the project, staff, environment, students,
state and local needs and attitudes must be studied.
The Process
There are ten elements to be addressed by the planner:
1. Current Conditions. The development of information
and data describing the current program conditions
and needs as expressed by students, staff, faculty,
etc. is required.
2. Problem Analysis. Broad problem areas and the overall
needs; the degree and intensity of the problem or causes,
special characteristics of each problem and identification
of the cause of the problem.
3. Defining Goals and Objectives. Objectives are developed
for each function of the program's delivery system.
The objectives are specific and expressed in behavioral
terms.
4. Program Approaches. Priorities are ranked in terms
of their importance, thus providing means to allocate
financial resources. The following criteria are used
to define the basis for establishing priorities: (a)
magnitude of the problem; (b) severity of the problem
or need; (c) difficulty of accomplishing the approach
selected; (d) the impact on the student in terms of
benefit received versus its cost; (e) time required
to achieve the objectives; and (f) the effects of success
or failure in accomplishing the objectives.
5. Administration and Organization. Administrative and
organizational concepts, policies, and procedures for
the delivery of the service must be developed.
6. Coordination, Communication, and Resource Mobilization.
The activities of each unit of the program are linked
by means of lines of authority as described in an organizational
chart. They are interfaced at each service level.
One objective to enhance inter-organizational communication
and delivery of service at the policy levels and staff
levels, is within each system and subsystem area of
performance. Major emphasis is placed upon non-duplication
and overlap of effort. This is accomplished by maintaining
two dimensions of service delivery: core and program.
core service delivery is that activity necessary to
sustain operations essential to program performance;
program services are those activities specifically
developed into one or more projects which specifically
benefit students and staff.
7. Information, Records, and Performance Monitoring.
Information, records, and performance monitoring concerns
the recording of usable information about students,
staff, faculty, and operations. The recording of information
must be cogent and concise.
8.Program Evaluation . The program engages in a self-evaluation
to consider the degree to which the objective was attained
and the results of the effect and the performance levels
of staff and cost. At all times, the evaluation and
the analysis therein force management to reevaluate
the mission of the program and to determine if it remains
appropriate for consideration in developing the subsequent
planning period. External and internal evaluation
are considered together.
9. Training and Technical Assistance. The assessment
of training and technical assistance is an ongoing
activity of the program. This element is structured
to pinpoint the specific type of assessment needed
and at what time during the program year so that it
can be built into the one-year plan to insure adequate
and timely delivery.
SIX BASIC STEPS IN THE PLANNING PROCESS
Preliminary Stage
Purpose Identification
A. Specific purposes of department/unit should be briefly
listed.
B. Limits should be set on the types of problems which
will be considered.
C. The scope of the department/unit should be determined.
Step I: Identification of the Problem (Definition)
A. People are unhappy or uncomfortable about something.
B. What is the condition which causes their unhappiness
or discomfort?
C. Why does this condition exist?
D. The problem is ......(In any given planning process,
numerous conditions/problems will be identified; the
same process applies to each situation.)
Step II: Setting of Goals
A. Alternative goals should be identified in relation
to each problem identified.
B. The goal should be chosen as a solution to one problem.
1. How achievement of this goal will "solve"
problem should be shown.
2. This goal should be related to the overall purpose
of the department/unit.
3. Is the goal achievable?
Step III: Determination of Priorities
A. All of the goals accepted in solving problems should
be identified.
B. Which problem is most immediate? Causes the most
discomfort?
C. Which problem is most difficult to solve? Easiest
to solve?
D. Defineing the problem which has existed for the longest period of
time?
E. For which problem are the resources most readily available?
F. Which problems are the staff and faculty most concerned
about?
What do staff and faculty most want to see change?
G. What is the probability of successful implementation?
H. What should be the priority order of goals based on
the problems stated above?
Step IV: Program Development
A. Statement and acceptance of the goal.
B. Identification of objectives (what and when).
1. The relationship between goals and objectives (sub-goals)
should be established.
2. Do the objectives complement one another?
C. Identification of strategies (how, when, and who) to meet objectives.
1. What activities are staff and faculty prepared to do?
2. What resources are available (money, time, space, etc.)?
3. Are there ongoing programs and activities which could accomplish one or more goals?
4. Will the activity have an immediate effect, or will it have long-range effect?
5. Has the strategy been successful in similar situations?
6. How will the strategy involve others?
7. Is this the strategy the faculty and staff want?
D. Identification of the cost of the strategies--budgeting.
E. The above procedure should be followed for each alternative
program designed to meet the goal.
F. Analysis of alternative programs.
1. Relevant costs and benefits should be identified.
Costs
a. Direct costs (budget items)
b. Incremental costs
c. Long-term costs
d. Probable costs to other departments/units
e. Hidden costs
Benefits
a. Direct benefits to staff, faculty, and students
b. Indirect benefits
l. Utilization of community resources
2. Establishment of new channels of coordination
3. Impact on institution (public image)
4. Increased community/student participation
2. Social and institutional values to be maximized should
be identified.
3. Constraints should be identified and analyzed.
a. Available resources: Office of Education, Board of Governors, Board of Trustees.
b. Political realities: Is the program too controversial?
4. The risks: how "certain" are the benefits?
G. Selection of program(s) for submission to Office of
Education or the State for funding.
Step V. Implementation of Program
A. Staff recruitment should be undertaken.
B. Staff should be given training.
C. Program should begin.
D. Program reporting should begin.
Step VI: Evaluation of Program
A. Reporting; record-keeping
B. Periodic program and budget review; reprogramming of funds
C. Actual site evaluation in terms of goals defined in Step II
Evaluation is a continuous process which
feeds into future planning efforts.
_____________________________________________________________________________________________
Management Notes is published six times a year
a year by Voices of the Tribe. Editorial offices
are located at 933 Washington-Davenport, Iowa 52804/USA.
The Purpose of this publication is to provide readers
with down-to-earth management information, ideas and
techniques they can put into action to motivate employees
and spur productivity.
Back to document index
Original file name: v1n4 - converted on Sunday, 8 June 1997, 22:29
v1n5 Perspectives of Management
Management Notes Online
April & May 1997
Alan L. Joplin, Publisher
Perspectives of Management
The managerial skills of leaders determine the success
or failure of an organization. Such skills are not
necessarily inborn but are acquired through the study
of literature in the field, through seminars and discussions
of managerial problems, and through careful observation
of successful managers. To develop as managers, it
is important that individuals acquire knowledge of
techniques and processes pertinent to effective management.
A manager works with five basic resources: Money,
Material, Machinery, Methods and Manpower.
Money: Money is the lubrication of an organization;
it is the common denominator which relates to all phases
of an organization. Money management is as essential
to organizational management as the circulation of
the blood is to the human body. In management, the
term money includes capital expenditures and working
funds. The manager must utilize his project budget
in the most effective manner; the manager must understand
the fact that money spent affects the total stability
of his organization.
Material: In all various types of organizations, materials
are necessary components, with the degree of necessity
varying from organization to organization. For example,
in service organizations, management controls a variety
of supplies; however, materials in this type of organization
are of less importance than those in a product-oriented
organization.
Machinery: The proper selection and utilization of
machinery, such as office machines and computers, are
major aspects of a manager's job.
Methods: A systemic approach to organizing and implementing
resources can make the difference between success and
failure. The expertise of managers depends upon their
command of techniques and methods; effective methods
of dealing with problems should be incorporated as
a major resource of an organization.
Manpower: None of the four M's mentioned above mean
anything without the manpower to implement them; for
if all of the first four were taken away and only personnel
(manpower) were left, the manager could still function.
Effective utilization of personnel in an organization
can overcome defects in the other resources. Poor
utilization of manpower will negate the effectiveness
of the organization even if it is strong in all of
the other resources.
Management depends on Manpower, not just to be the hand
that manipulates the machines but also to be the brain
which determines how the organization should function
and to insure that it does so function. Peter Drucker
feels that people are the key to success, and managing
people effectively is the factor that separates the
" have " from the " have not. "
The key word should be considered again, MANAGEMENT.
The syllable which should be accented should be considered,
MAN-AGEMENT. The MAN should be concentrated on in
developing all other resources; MAN used generically
as meaning all human resources, both male and female.
MANPOWER is the catalyst that makes all of the other
resources succeed or fail. It is necessary that good
management utilize all resources to the maximum; but
in concentrating upon MANPOWER, the fifth of the big
M's, the manager will be able to achieve the objectives
most effectively. If managers become aware of the human
element, if they understand that people are not machines,
the work management can become HUMAN-AGEMENT.
There is paramount concern over this element which grows
continuously day by day. Management specialists are
studying the behavioral sciences. They have adopted--from
the fields of psychology, sociology, anthropology and
related disciplines--many concepts which have not only
resulted in an increase in productivity, but also have
made the world of work a more pleasant environment,
enabling significant numbers of people to achieve a
large degree of satisfaction from their work.
MANAGEMENT CONCEPTS
For as long as mankind has had formal organizations,
those who have directed and controlled them have been
concerned with how well tasks are being done and which
tasks are actually being done. The idea of an organization
as a system is not new; the concept of Professional
Management has origins lost in history. Though the
management profession appears to have been spawned
in the twentieth century with tools and techniques
that seem distinctly modern, this is not at all so;
for it is said that, contrary to other ideas, Management
may be the world's oldest profession. Following are
a few examples:
Four Thousand (4000) BC.: Egyptians and Sumerians developed
systems of planning and record keeping. Egyptians are
credited with recognizing the need for planning, organizing,
and controlling the activities of large groups of workers.
Two Thousand (2000) BC.: The concept of decentralized
organization existed.
Eighteen Hundred (1800) BC.: Hammurabi established
a minimum-wage system.
Eleven Hundred (1100) BC.: The Chinese developed planning
and control systems.
Four Hundred (400) BC.: Socrates spoke of the universality
of management functions in organized human endeavor.
Three Hundred Fifty (350) BC.: Alexander the Great
made brilliant use of the military staff system.
Fourteen Hundred Thirty-Six (1436) AD.: One famous
arsenal of Venice employed over 1000 people in ship
building and armament, making extensive use of accounting
systems, planning, inventory control, assembly line
techniques, interchangeable parts and a formal system
of personnel management.
Eighteen Hundred Eighty-One (1881) AD.: Joseph Warton
established college courses in business management
at the University of Pennsylvania.
All of these endeavors were geared toward the problem
of how to make organizations function more effectively,
this being the central theme of analysis, experimentation
and design. Why one army defeats another; why one
country grows and profits while another fails; why
one small business enterprise after another goes bankrupt;
why a government agency is abolished; why one non-profit
institution flounders and dies while another exerts
a dynamic force for social improvement are all questions
of performance. A variable which stands out as most
instrumental in organization effectiveness is the variable
of managerial performance.
Organizational effectiveness, however, depends much
on the situation, including significantly the right
timing, the right national moods, the hot new product,
the untapped demand for a social service, the charisma
of leaders, the special skills and political acumen
of top executives, and lucky events in the environment.
DISTINCT SCHOOLS OF MANAGEMENT
More than sixty years ago five distinct schools of
management were developed. These are:
Scientific Management
(1920s). This view focuses its
attention on workers interfacing; that is, the key
to efficiency is in getting the worker to fit the job.
The concept leads to developing the worker so that
efficient performance at the highest grade of work
for his natural ability fits. Frederick Winslow Taylor,
an American engineer whose career began as a laborer
was significant in this school of thought. His man-job
fit was, however, more physiological than psychological;
the method was, in part, to train workers to move in
the best way at an optimum speed. Fayal, while associated
with Taylor, was more concerned with management. Together
they constitute the Functional School of Management
which is sometimes referred to as being primarily
concerned with organizations without people. The primary
emphasis is technology, the way work is or can be done.
Human Relations
(1930s). Switching from the worker's
physical labor to his psychological makeup, Harvard
University conducted some long-term experiments which
have been identified as the Human Relations School.
Emphasis was placed on the informal organization rather
than the formal: the worker and his or her personal
psychological need held emphasis. The fact that productivity
was affected by the worker's perception of the interest
management had in him or her surfaced. It also became
obvious that output could easily be restricted, and
perhaps was, by social pressures to conform to standards
set by co-workers. Alton Mayo, an Australian who spent
most of his working life at the Harvard Business School,
has been said to have been the founder of the human
relations movement and of industrial sociology. His
most significant research project was an investigation
at the Hawthorne Works of the Western Electric Company
near Chicago.
This and other research demonstrated
the importance of groups in affecting the behavior
of individuals at work. Such studies led to significant
research which focused on psychological and sociological
forces in industrial organizations. Morale and job
satisfaction boomed, a fact which led to the approach
being termed "people without organization."
Fritz Roethlisberger, another important figure in this
school, made further inquiries into the human effect
of work and working conditions.
Argyries and Heryberg, in their efforts in this area,
showed how the expression of the organizational philosophy,
or of technology, interacts with the worker and inhibits
his psychological maturity or motivation. Although
it is clear that an important situation element must
be subordinates, many believe that the human relations
approach is somewhat one-sided. It has been shown
that production is not necessarily related to morale
and that it is far-fetched and non-realistic to seek
favorable attitudes over and above the organization
objectives. McNair and Whyte stood out as being significant
critics of the human relations school.
Group Dynamics
(1940s). With its interest in the interaction
among people, the emphasis given to informal organization,
the stressing of the lowering of the power differential
between superior and subordinate, and the emphasis
on thinking of group rather than group dynamics has
led this school to much involvement with group dynamics
training, or more specifically, sensitivity training.
Soon after World War II, this school produced many
writers who became social scientists, writers whose
passionate concern has been man's inhumanity.
No single person is the dominant figure emerging from
this group, though Bradford, Bennis and Miles are prominent
names in this school. Many persons, however, have
fiercely attacked group dynamics as a training device.
Odiorne has done so in "The Trouble With Sensitivity
Training." On the other hand, the school has been
strongly defended by Arhyris in "T-Groups for
Organizational Effectiveness." The suggestion
most prevalent in this school is that organizations
should move to eliminate boss-subordinate roles and
to substitute co-worker roles instead. The question
arises: Can managers go that far? Wherever the answer,
it is clear that co-workers is also a significant situational
element.
Management Styles
(1950s). The idea that a manager
should respond in a particular way to most situations,
or in a flexible way, depending on the situation, is
a focus with growing interest. This focus implies
that the manager is seen primarily as reporting to
subordinates or situations rather than changing them.
This approach, being essentially psychological in
the classification scheme of style theorists, focuses
significantly on personality variables--such usually
being task and relationship rather than situational.
McGregor, Blake and Jennings are prominent figures
in this school and the important structural element
is that of superior.
Organization Theory
(1960s). Being viewed as a single
entity, this school is said to have a culture of its
own, independent of technology or styles of those persons
who hold positions in the organization. Purely sociological,
this approach eliminates personal factors from consideration.
It provides helpful insight, but it fails to recognize
that people exist. The school's key focus is upon
culture, philosophy, ethics, or the climate of the
organization as being the important situational elements.
Five approaches have been mentioned and each has provided
valuable insights and opportunities for improving effectiveness.
Each has strong adherents and practitioners today,
and each is a part of management development courses
all over the world. Each has strengths and is useful
but cannot be the solution to all management problems.
Each of them deals with different aspects of the total
situation with which a manager deals. Thus, the opportunity
that managers should seek is the eclectic approach--the
intermingling of the best of all these approaches,
with no undue focus on any one. The focus should be
upon the total situation, rather than on any one situational
element, a recommendation which leads to consideration
of the situation theory.
Situational Theory
. A theory which draws on all five
schools is said to be nothing new. Mary Parker Follett
proposed that managers structure the situation and
follow the "Law of the Situation." Her approach
began with a question about technology demand, "What
do you want people to do?" and then, "How
do you scientifically control conduct to accomplish
this?" From this, a currently popular expression
has been utilized relative to situational theory:
"leader-follower situation approach." Today,
Fiedler, Likert and Stogdill figure prominently in
this approach as they successfully pieced together
research to develop a comprehensive situational theory
of worker performance. They have recognized the complexity
of the relationships among production, satisfaction,
and morale relationships, which had once been considered
simple and free flowing.
The paragraphs above have looked at some distinct schools
of thought in management, each presenting some significant
and unique idea critical to management effectiveness,
the extent to which a manager achieves the output requirements
of the position and the effectiveness of behavior on
the situation. Prior to further looking into the leading
research on managerial behavior, it is best at this
point to consider some definitions.
WHAT IS A MANAGER, AND WHAT IS MANAGEMENT?
What is a Manager
? Occupying a position in a formal
organization, a manager is responsible for the work
of at least one other person and has formal authority
over that person. The persons for whose work he is
responsible are subordinates. The persons with whom
he works--those who are neither his superior nor his
subordinate--are co-workers. Determining where a manager
fits and who is a manager, a subordinate, a co-worker,
a superior is essentially based on where the power
lies, or who has the responsibility and the authority.
There has been a great deal of research into styles
of managers. From such research, four basic styles
have emerged. There exists a significant number of
studies on leadership. Some of the many well-known
social scientists identified with research which focused
on leadership and human relations in business and industry
include Barnard, Davis, Simon, Fielder, Mayo, Roethlisberger,
Likert, Dickson, Blake, and Gardner. Some, like Hemphill,
Thelen, Rogers, and Cantor, have been concerned with
classroom leadership. For such scientists as Lewin,
Merton, Deutsch, Chein, Festinger, Lippitt, and French,
social change and leadership in the community have
been the main focus. Other key leadership-research
studies which will impact on this discussion are those
conducted at Ohio State University, the University
of Michigan, and Harvard University.
From Ohio State: Leadership Factors. It has been said
that the most extensive and rigorous leadership studies
in the world were done under the direction of Carroll
Shortle at Ohio State in the late 1940s and early 1950s;
studies which resulted in a series of monographs published
by the Bureau of Business Research at Ohio State.
The central findings of these studies are that leadership
behavior can be usefully classified into two independent
factors:
1.Initiating Structure--this factor concerns planning
as well as organizing work and tasks.
2.Consideration--this factor has to do with maintaining
relationships.
These two factors are described as being independent
in that the extent to which a manager uses one of them
does not predict how much he uses the other; that is
to say, a manager may be using both, a little of both,
much of one and little of the other, or any combination
in varying degrees of these two factors. From the University
of Michigan: Style Continuum. Extensively conducted
by the University of Michigan's Survey Research Center,
these studies were initiated in 1947. Here, a great
variety of organizations were studied, including two
agencies of the Federal government. The central idea
developed from these studies was the Michigan Style
Continuum. This idea suggests that leader behavior
can be viewed as moving from an employee-centered extreme
to a production-centered extreme.
Note: The approach is radically different from that of Ohio State. As
with the Ohio studies, the two basic ideas of task
and relationship are present but the relationship between
them is different. The Michigan continuum suggests
that the more employee-centered a manager behaves,
the less production-centered the behavior. Ohio does
not suggest this view; it indicates that a manager
may be high or low on both at the same time. It seems
significant that in recent years, Michigan has modified
its view and now sees production-centered and employee-centered
more as independent variables than as on a continuum.
With this change the Michigan position approaches
that of Ohio State.
From Harvard University: Bales, the initiator of the
Harvard studies, had prime focus upon small group behavior.
The Harvard Group-Leader Types resulted from these
studies. Most groups studied were comprised of college
students--no managers were included in the experiment.
Although there are limitations on the applicability
of Bales' findings, results remarkably similar to those
of Ohio and Michigan resulted. It was found that in
small groups two quite different leaders emerged:
1.Task leaders -- those who do most of the talking and
offering
of suggestions.
2.Socio emotional leaders -- those who make it easier
for others to talk
and who offer psychological support.
A group member is either one or the other, never both.
To date, most leadership research has its basis in
one or the other of the three studies previously discussed.
They represent the core of current thinking. While
they differ on certain points, they agree that task
and relationship are variables. Here, they are generally
talking about the same kind of behavior. The two distinct
elements of any manager's job are the task to be done
and the human relationship skills needed to see that
the task is accomplished.
_____________________________________________________________________________________________
Management Notes is published six times a year
a year by Voices of the Tribe. Editorial offices
are located at 933 Washington - Davenport, Iowa 52804/USA.
The Purpose of this publication is to provide readers
with down-to-earth management information, ideas and
techniques they can put into action to motivate employees
and spur productivity.
v1n6 Context Evaluation for the Academic Support Programs
Management Notes Online
June & July 1997
Alan L. Joplin, Publisher
Context Evaluation for the Academic Support Programs
The purpose of context evaluation is to define the environment,
its unmet needs, and the opportunity for change, and
to diagnose the problem to be solved it needs are to
be met or opportunities used.
The design for context evaluation is described through
a series of steps involving:
1. Delineation of evaluation requirements
2. Collection of Information
3. Organization and storage of information
4. The analysis and reporting of information
DELINEATION OF INFORMATION
The first step in designing context evaluation is delineating
the evaluation. This is to:
1. Identify the program to be evaluated.
Identifying the program to be evaluated is a very complex
problem.
Decision makers might define for example, curriculum
in many ways, and their verbal statements may deviate
greatly from the actual practice.
2. Identification of decision situation and levels to
be served.
This item is essential in the focusing of the evaluation.
This information aids in determining:
A. The purpose the information is to serve, quality control
development or acquisitions.
B. A timetable for providing the information
C. The level of decision making for which the report
is prepared.
NOTE: Well designed Context Evaluation will provide data
for all relevant levels.
3. Describing the current program.
This will require gathering information relating to
the instructional and behavioral variables for each
program component.
1. Demographic data on the population
2. Data on program activities
a. Instructional
b. Counseling, etc.
4. Identifying mission, goals and objectives.
The task of the evaluator is to state the mission, goals
and objectives so that they facilitate communications
between the evaluator and the designers and implementers
of the program. The approach to the problem of stating
objectives must be in terms of meeting the needs of
the component and the decision level to be served.
One the mission, goals and objectives have been identified
the final step of the evaluation process in the delineating
stage is to identify the questions to be answered by
the evaluation.
1. The forces which act upon program design to meet the
needs of students.
2. Forces: Instructional, behavior and Population Variables
This combination of variables provides the evaluator
with a system for identifying questions concerning
those forces that influence the achievement of program
objectives.
Delineating the evaluation as described provides the
evaluator with a complete picture of the program to
be evaluated and the data needed for decision making.
The generation of questions may be as complex as the
need demands. The decision maker must be responsible
for the decision relative to the selection of objectives.
If the information concerning content, student and
cognitive behavior is all that is considered necessary,
then the evaluator's task is much less complicated
in terms of instrumentation, data gathering, and storage.
The evaluator has at least called attention to possible
categories of questions that might be relevant to the
need for decision making.
OBTAINING INFORMATION
The delineation process of the context evaluation systems
provides the basis for a well organized data collection
system.
NOTE: Descriptive data will be collected and stored as
soon as each step of the delineating state is completed.
Instrumentation should be designed to fit the information
storage and retrieval system developed by the evaluator.
In most cases, forms will be designed with information
relevant to the coding systems used for the storage
and retrieval of information.
Once the questions to be answered by context evaluation
have been developed, the source of information, sampling
procedures and instruments must be identified.
Whenever possible, administering too many instruments
to the same person should be avoided. Many questions
can be answered by a single instrument. Where a number
of instruments are involved, sampling might be employed.
The final component of the data collection system is
the master schedule for collecting information. A
well organized plan involving deadlines for the creation
and administration of instruments must be developed.
ORGANIZING AND STORING INFORMATION
The third link in the strategy of context evaluation
is an information processing and storage system. The
monitoring of programs through context evaluation should
include a system that provides for
1. The processing of data.
2. A central information and storage system, including
data bank for research, innovative practices, demographic
data, test instruments and items and program descriptions.
Properly designed information systems possessing adequate
facilities make it possible for the evaluator to provide
up-to-date and immediate access to information vital
to decision making. Program planning and implementation
also requires information relevant to program objectives,
facilities, personnel and program alternatives, etc.
Each of these complex tasks require valid and reliable
information. Inadequate information and processing
systems lead to poor decision making and ultimately
to serious weaknesses in the educational process.
ANALYSIS AND REPORTING OF INFORMATION
The fourth and final component of the strategy for context
evaluation is the analysis and reporting of information,
a complex task requiring a cooperative effort on the
part of many individuals.
The first step is to develop a report prepared by the
evaluator directly responsible for the context evaluation.
Data will be packaged in a report, with interpretations
made from the data analysis and resource. The objective
of the first step is to provide a baseline for the
evaluator in considering all the facilities available
through the information storage and processing system.
With the evaluator's report involving the analysis and
synthesis of data the second step is to identify needs
and opportunities. Even though the program is meeting
current objectives, the evaluator and decision makers
together must consider future needs and keep up to
date on innovations in programming. At this point
recommendations are made concerning possible changes
or recycling of the program. Changes may be recommended
because the program is not meeting its objectives,
current objectives are not sufficient to meet demands,
or innovative practices indicate significant opportunities
for improvement.
Depending on the recommendations in steps two, the final
report is prepared to meet the needs of the various
audiences it is to serve.
A System of Variables to Guide the Evaluation
Of Academic Support Programs
To provide information on the forces that influence
a student's achievement, the evaluator needs to work
within a framework that offers a wide range to potentially
relevant variables reflecting theory and practice of
teaching and learning in a wide range of institutional
settings.
A framework designed to meet these specifications was
developed at the EPIC Evaluation Center in Tucson,
Arizona. The structure is composed of three sets of
variables:
1. INSTRUCTION
2. POPULATION
3. BEHAVIOR, and it has been most useful as a heuristic
device to reveal combinations of variables leading
to more complete description and analysis of the program.
In considering the dimensions, analysis of variables
is limited only by the nature and scope of the program
and the desire for simple and complex analysis. A
description of these forces affecting program results
is produced through the interaction of variables on
each of the dimensions.
INSTRUCTIONS
In the set of variables identified with instruction,
content is that structure or body of knowledge which
is identified with the subject matter of the discipline
and controls its inquiries. Generally, content is described
through a structure of topics to be covered within
and across grade levels in the institution.
The scope and sequences of the content of the program
is divided into topics to be covered for freshmen through
the senior year. Each topic is further broken down
according to content to be covered under a topic at
a given instructional level..
Such a breakdown provides the evaluator with the necessary
content of instruments for evaluation purposes. Additional
breakdown within topics provides specifications for
item development and analysis.
methodology
The second variable is defined as "that process
designed to facilitate learning"
Three components are:
1. Teaching activities, such as lecture, discussion,
drill, inquiry, and debate.
2. Types of interaction between students, instructors.
3. Learning principles pertaining to motivation, practice
and reinforcement.
The degree of detail involved in the evaluation process
will be determined directly by the ability of the instructor
to describe what is taking place.
Organization
A third variable of instruction, concerns the way students
and instructors are brought together so that instructions
can take place.
Classifications of organization:
1. Vertical organization, serving to classify students
and move them upward from admission to departure.
2. Horizontal organization, dividing students among instructors.
3. Time organization, involving both duration and sequence
of segments of instructions.
Since many organizational patterns may be operating
within a given institution, the evaluator must describe
and store data for each program.
Facilities
Are the space, special equipment and expendable needed
for the educational program.
POPULATION
A second set of variables to be considered in program
description are those regarding the population directly
or indirectly involved in the program. Each acts as
a force affecting program outcomes. One classification
includes student, teacher, administrator, educational
specialist, family, and community. Demographic data
are required for each category. Examples include (1)
general identification data for students such as age,
grade level, sex, achievement, and mental health; (2)
identification data for teachers, administrators, and
educational specialists, such as educational background,
work experience, and environmental factors (professional
salary and professional and non-professional affiliations);
(3) general characteristics of families, such as size,
age distribution, income, residence, education, and
mobility; (4) characteristics of the community, such
as geographic setting, historical development, population,
economic and social structures, government, power structure,
socioeconomic stratification, and commercial and financial
status.
In the past evaluators have gathered demographic data
on an ad hoc basis, so that new information had to
be gathered each time a particular decision situation
occurred. storage systems must be developed and kept
up to date, and this requires the development of instruments
and coding systems for storage. Much time must be
spent on this during the early states of evaluation.
BEHAVIOR
Behavior is a third set of variables to be considered
the reactions of the persons who are in the instructional
settings. One approach to classification is that of
Bloom, Krathwohl, and others involving cognitive, affective,
and psychomotor behavior. Taxonomies have been generated
for the cognitive and affective domains and attempts
have been made to do so for the psychomotor domain.
Information about these is readily available to the
evaluator. The primary task of the evaluator is to
identify the levels and categories of behavior on which
information is needed.
_____________________________________________________________________________________________
Management Notes is published six times a year
a year by Voices of the Tribe. Editorial offices
are located at 933 Washington - Davenport, Iowa 52804/USA.
The Purpose of this publication is to provide readers
with down-to-earth management information, ideas and
techniques they can put into action to motivate employees
and spur productivity.
Organizational objectives allow for the communications
of the purpose and direction of the organization. In
addition, organizational objectives serve to sharpen
the focus of the it's resources toward its purpose.
The organizational objectives as a means and measure
provides the organizational community a powerful tool
for increasing the effectiveness. The organizational
objective means provides for an increased understanding
of the organization and its purpose and provides for
a succinct statement of l staff performance outcomes.
There are several characteristics of a good objective.
The objective should be stated using the active form of the verb.
The objective should specify the expected outcome.
The objective should specify the level of effectiveness
expected to be achieved.
The objective should indicate the length of time in
which it is expected to be achieved.
The objective should indicate the conditions under which
the behavior is expected to occur.
Strategy for developing organizational objective hierarchy
A strategy for developing organizational objectives
is based on a hierarchical concept. The strategy
is divided into five basic steps.
1. Clearly state the ultimate objective.
2. State the mission statement and organizational-wide
objectives.
3. Develop the unit objectives.
4. Specify the performance objectives.
Step One: The
ultimate objective
A work groups should be chosen to formulate a statement
of philosophy. Representation on the work groups
should come from all segments of the organization.
Select a task manager who will coordinate the task of
philosophy statement. If their is a current statement
of philosophy, the task manager should distribute it
to all members of the work groups with a set of questions
to guide the review.
After the questions have been discussed, each member
of the work groups should collect specific information
needed to develop the new philosophy. Each member might
better collect information from there own representative
group. There are various methods that can be used
to collect the information such as surveys, questionnaires,
informal contacts, formal meetings, letters and memoranda's.
The information should be reviewed for its repetition
and differences. Belief statements should be written
embodying this information.The crude belief statements
will have to be modified and reviewed until they become
acceptable as a statement of philosophy. The first
revision is the responsibility of the task manager.
The task manager routes the rough draft to all the other
members of the work groups for their suggestions and
revisions. The task manager incorporates all appropriate
changes into the statement of philosophy and gives
it to the employee's of the organization.
The employee's reaction to the statement are incorporated
into the final draft of the statement of philosophy.
Step Two: Stating the ultimate objective,
mission
statement and
organizational-wide objective.
A work groups should be selected; could be the same
work groups used in stating the ultimate objective.
A task manager should be chosen to assume the responsibility
of coordinating the task of writing and making consistent
the ultimate objectives, mission statement, and organizational-wide
objectives.
The work groups should formulate an ultimate objective.
The ultimate objective is a succinct statement of the
final draft of the statement of philosophy. This work
groups should draft an supportive mission statement
focused on management functions.
The work groups should relate the mission statement
to all the organizational-wide objectives. Both the
mission statements and organizational-wide objectives
should reflect the purpose(s) of the organization.
The work groups should decide which purposes are directly
related to the outputs of the organization.
Determining the kinds of functions which organization-wide
objectives should include: List the functions that
reflect the major operations of the organization, personal
relations, financial management, etc.
Working in teams of two, the work groups should propose
several function arrangements depicting the relationship
between the functions and the organization-wide objectives.
After agreeing on a particular arrangement of function,
the work groups should write objective statements which
encompass all of the functions.
These statements should be reviewed and revised before
a tentative final draft is submitted to the whole work
groups, the chief administrator, for their review.
Step Three: Developing the
unit objectives
A task manager should be chosen to assume the responsibility
of coordinating, writing, and making consistent the
unit objectives.
A work groups, comprised of the unit staff or representatives
from the staff, should discuss the mission statement
and the organ-izationalwide objectives that have already
been constructed.
The work groups should examine any other data that have
been collected; i.e., test, survey, questionnaire data,
interviews.
The work groups should put in writing the mission statement
of the unit.
The work groups should identify the unit objectives,
both develop-mental, maintenance, and problem solving.
The work groups should identify the sub-unit objectives
and specify the unit elements objectives.
The work groups should lay out a unit for each unit,
sub-unit, and unit element objective.
Understanding and approval of the unit from the individual
the unit manager report to.
The unit staff should be involved in the detailed writing
for each unit level objective.
Define the limits within which the unit staff members
can operate.
Define the necessary evaluation-devices so that the
unit manager can periodically assess progress.
Step Four: Stating
performance objectives
Performance objectives should be developed for every
support function in the organization.
All other objectives (ultimate, organization-wide, and
unit) should be reviewed and performance objectives
developed so that the other objectives will be attained.
Objectives hierarchies
We established the need for a logical, systematically-derived
comprehensive statement of outcomes or objectives to
be accomplished by an organizational-wide system. The
systematic ordering of organizational objectives can
be most effectively accomplished through the use of
an objectives hierarchy framework. An objectives hierarchy
is a systematic mapping out of all objectives necessary
to the accomplishment of a given overall, ultimate
objective.
Starting with the general or ultimate objective at the
top and preceding down through increasingly more specific
objectives, the hierarchy provides a comprehensive,
functional means of organizing objectives into a logical,
internally consistent focusing of energies toward the
accomplishment of the ultimate organizational objective.
In an objectives hierarchy, the objectives are arranged
in levels so that as you go down the hierarchy, each
level explains a " HOW " the level above
it can be accomplished and as you go up the hierarchy,
each level explains " WHY " the level below
it is necessary
The actual construction of the hierarchy begins at the
top with the ultimate objective and works down the
successive levels. The number of levels utilized and
the terminology applied to these levels is a function
of the specific needs and characteristics of the particular
system to which the hierarchy is being applied.
Ultimate Objective. Is a succinct statement reflecting
the philosophical beliefs and values basic to the organization.
The ultimate objective delineates the philosophical
parameters for the lower level objectives.
Mission Statement.The mission statement is derived directly
from the ultimate objective. The mission statement
specifies the major elements or components critical
to the accomplishment of the ultimate objective.
The mission statement reflects those basic support
elements or components essential to the accomplishment
of the ultimate objective. The support elements deal
with the managerial functions needed to attain the
desired Outcomes.
Starting with the mission statement level, the objectives
hierarchy is vertically divided. The mission statement
constitutes the rationale behind organizational-wide
objectives as well as delineates the scope of organizational-wide
objectives coverage.
Organizational-wide Objectives. Organizational-wide
objectives specify those factors critical to accomplishing
the mission statement. Organizational-wide objectives
are necessarily more precise than the mission statement
and there are more of them, usually three to ten. There
are two types of organizational-wide objectives: instructional
and support.
The total set of organizational-wide support objectives,
delineates the scope of major functions which must
be performed in order to accomplish the mission statement.
By clarifying these functions, the total set of organizational-wide
objectives provides the focus for unit areas. Although
the total set of organizational wide objectives provides
the focus for all unit areas, a given organizational-wide
objective may or may not cross-cut all unit areas.
Unit Objectives. In effect, unit objectives constitute
mission statements for each of their respective unit
areas. The unit objective clearly delineates the functions
to be performed and the responsibilities to be assumed
within that particular unit area.
Support units objectives incorporate supportive functions
such as trans-portation, management, food services,
purchasing, etc. Unit objectives set the parameters
for the types of lower level objectives to be included
within a given unit area.
The terminology applied to the mission, organizational-wide
and unit levels remains the same for support objectives.
However, the nature of the Objectives below the support
unit objectives level are called performance objectives.
These objectives describe the tasks which must be performed
in order to provide support services. There are three
basic types of performance objectives: problem-solving,
developmental, and maintenance.
Observation guide for process observers
Things to look for:
Participation: Did all have opportunities to participate?
Were some excluded? was an effort made to draw people
out? Did a few dominate?
Manager-ship: Did a leader, as such, emerge? was a leader
designated? Was manager-ship shared? '.was there any
structuring of the group?
Roles: Who initiated ideas? Were they supported and by
whom? Did anyone block? Who helped push for decisions?
Was there any attempt to summarize and pull together
various ideas?
Decision Making: Did group get a lot of ideas suggested
before beginning to decide, or did it begin deciding
on only a single idea? Did everyone agree to the decisions
made? Who helped influence decisions of others? What
issues did the group seem to resolve? Not resolve?
Communication: Did people feel free to talk? Was there
any interrupting ocutting people off?. Did people really
listen to others? Was-there clarification of points
made? Who did people look at when they talked) single
out others, scan the group or no one?
Sensitivity: Were members sensitive to the needs and
concerns of each other? What feelings did you see being
expressed either verbally or non- verbally?
Feedback to group: Talk about the above items or anything
else of general interest that you observed about the
process.
Developing a Hierarchy: Organizational Objectives
Alan L. Joplin
Organizational objectives allow for the communications
of the purpose and direction of the organization. In
addition, organizational objectives serve to sharpen
the focus of the it's resources toward its purpose.
The organizational objectives as a means and measure
provides the organizational community a powerful tool
for increasing the effectiveness. The organizational
objective means provides for an increased understanding
of the organization and its purpose and provides for
a succinct statement of l staff performance outcomes.
There are several characteristics of a good objective.
The objective should be stated using the active form of the verb.
The objective should specify the expected outcome.
The objective should specify the level of effectiveness expected to be achieved.
The objective should indicate the length of time in
which it is expected to be achieved.
The objective should indicate the conditions under which
the behavior is expected to occur.
Strategy for developing organizational objective hierarchy
A strategy for developing organizational objectives
is based on a hierarchical concept.
The strategy is divided into four basic steps.
1. Clearly state the ultimate objective.
2. State the mission statement and organizational-wideobjectives.
3. Develop the unit objectives.
4. Specify the performance objectives.
Step One: The ultimate objective
A work groups should be chosen to formulate a statement
of philosophy. Representation on the work groups
should come from all segments of the organization.
Select a task manager who will coordinate the task of
philosophy statement. If their is a current statement
of philosophy, the task manager should distribute it
to all members of the work groups with a set of questions
to guide the review.
After the questions have been discussed, each member
of the work groups should collect specific information
needed to develop the new philosophy. Each member might
better collect information from there own representative
group. There are various methods that can be used
to collect the information such as surveys, questionnaires,
informal contacts, formal meetings, letters and memoranda's.
The information should be reviewed for its repetition
and differences. Belief statements should be written
embodying this information. The crude belief statements
will have to be modified and reviewed until they become
acceptable as a statement of philosophy. The first
revision is the responsibility of the task manager.
The task manager routes the rough draft to all the other
members of the work groups for their suggestions and
revisions. The task manager incorporates all appropriate
changes into the statement of philosophy and gives
it to the employee's of the organization.
The employee's reaction to the statement are incorporated
into the final draft of the statement of philosophy.
Step Two: Stating the ultimate objective, mission
statement and Organizational-wide objective.
A work groups should be selected; could be the same
work groups used in stating the ultimate objective.
A task manager should be chosen to assume the responsibility
of coordinating the task of writing and making consistent
the ultimate objectives, mission statement, and organizational-wide
objectives.
The work groups should formulate an ultimate objective.
The ultimate objective is a succinct statement of the
final draft of the statement of philosophy. This work
groups should draft an supportive mission statement
focused on management functions.
The work groups should relate the mission statement
to all the organizational-wide objectives. Both the
mission statements and organizational-wide objectives
should reflect the purpose(s) of the organization.
The work groups should decide which purposes are directly
related to the outputs of the organization.
Determining the kinds of functions which organization-wide
objectives should include: List the functions that
reflect the major operations of the organization, personal
relations, financial management, etc.
Working in teams of two, the work groups should propose
several function arrangements depicting the relationship
between the functions and the organization-wide objectives.
After agreeing on a particular arrangement of function,
the work groups should write objective statements which
encompass all of the functions.
These statements should be reviewed and revised before
a tentative final draft is submitted to the whole work
groups, the chief administrator, for their review.
Step Three: Developing the unit objectives
A task manager should be chosen to assume the responsibility
of coordinating, writing, and making consistent the
unit objectives.
A work groups, comprised of the unit staff or representatives
from the staff, should discuss the mission statement
and the organizational wide objectives that have already
been constructed.
The work groups should examine any other data that have
been collected; i.e., test, survey, questionnaire data,
interviews.
The work groups should put in writing the mission statement
of the unit.
The work groups should identify the unit objectives,
both develop-mental, maintenance, and problem solving.
The work groups should identify the sub-unit objectives
and specify the unit elements objectives.
The work groups should lay out a unit for each unit,
sub-unit, and unit element objective.
Understanding and approval of the unit from the individual
the unit manager report to.
The unit staff should be involved in the detailed writing
for each unit level objective.
Define the limits within which the unit staff members
can operate.
Define the necessary evaluation-devices so that the
unit manager can periodically assess progress.
Step Four: Stating performance objectives
Performance objectives should be developed for every
support function in the organization.
All other objectives (ultimate, organization-wide, and
unit) should be reviewed and performance objectives
developed so that the other objectives will be attained.
Educational objectives hierarchies
We established the need for a logical, systematically-derived
comprehensive statement of outcomes or objectives to
be accomplished by an organizational-wide system. The
systematic ordering of organizational objectives can
be most effectively accomplished through the use of
an objectives hierarchy framework. An objectives hierarchy
is a systematic mapping out of all objectives necessary
to the accomplishment of a given overall, ultimate
objective.
Figure 1: An Objective Hierarchy Frameeork.
Starting with the general or ultimate objective at the
top and preceding down through increasingly more specific
objectives, the hierarchy provides a comprehensive,
functional means of organizing objectives into a logical,
internally consistent focusing of energies toward the
accomplishment of the ultimate organizational objective.
In an objectives hierarchy, the objectives are arranged
in levels so that as you go down the hierarchy, each
level explains a " HOW " the level above
it can be accomplished and as you go up the hierarchy,
each level explains " WHY " the level below
it is necessary
Figure 2: The "How" and "Why" of organizational systems.
The actual construction of the hierarchy begins at the
top with the ultimate objective and works down the
successive levels. The number of levels utilized and
the terminology applied to these levels is a function
of the specific needs and characteristics of the particular
system to which the hierarchy is being applied.
Ultimate Objective. Is a succinct statement reflecting
the philosophical beliefs and values basic to the organization.
The ultimate objective delineates the philosophical
parameters for the lower level objectives.
Mission Statement. The mission statement is derived directly
from the ultimate objective. The mission statement
specifies the major elements or components critical
to the accomplishment of the ultimate objective.
The mission statement reflects those basic support
elements or components essential to the accomplishment
of the ultimate objective. The support elements deal
with the managerial functions needed to attain the
desired Outcomes.
Starting with the mission statement level, the objectives
hierarchy is vertically divided. The mission statement
constitutes the rationale behind organization-al-wide
objectives as well as delineates the scope of organizational-wide
objectives coverage.
Figure 3: The organizational-support dichotomy.
Organizational-wide Objectives. Organizational-wide
objectives specify those factors critical to accomplishing
the mission statement. Organizational-wide objectives
are necessarily more precise than the mission statement
and there are more of them, usually three to ten. There
are two types of organizational-wide objectives: instructional
and support.
The total set of organizational-wide support objectives,
delineates the scope of major functions which must
be performed in order to accomplish the mission statement.
By clarifying these functions, the total set of organizational-wide
objectives provides the focus for unit areas. Although
the total set of organizational wide objectives provides
the focus for all unit areas, a given organizational-wide
objective may or may not cross-cut all unit areas.
Unit Objectives. In effect, unit objectives constitute
mission statements for each of their respective unit
areas. The unit objective clearly delineates the functions
to be performed and the responsibilities to be assumed
within that particular unit area.
Support units objectives incorporate supportive functions
such as transportation, management, food services,
purchasing, etc. Unit objectives set the parameters
for the types of lower level objectives to be included
within a given unit area.
The terminology applied to the mission, organizational-wide
and unit levels remains the same for support objectives.
However, the nature of the Objectives below the support
unit objectives level are called performance objectives.
These objectives describe the tasks which must be performed
in order to provide support services. There are three
basic types of performance objectives: problem-solving,
developmental, and maintenance.
Observation guide for process observers
Things to look for:
Participation:
Did all have opportunities to participate?
Were some excluded?
Was an effort made to draw people out?
Did a few dominate?
Managership:
Did a leader, as such, emerge?
Was a leader designated?
Was manager-ship shared?
Was there any structuring of the group?
Roles:
Who initiated ideas?
Were they supported and by whom?
Did anyone block? Who helped push for decisions?
Was there any attempt to summarize and pull together
various ideas?
Decision Making:
Did group get a lot of ideas suggested before beginning
to decide, or did it begin deciding on only a single
idea?
Did everyone agree to the decisions made?
Who helped influence decisions of others?
What issues did the group seem to resolve?
Not resolve?
Communication:
Did people feel free to talk?
Was there any interrupting or cutting people off?
Did people really listen to others?
Was-there clarification of points made?
Who did people look at when they talked) single out
others, scan the group or no one?
Sensitivity:
Were members sensitive to the needs and concerns of
each other?
What feelings did you see being expressed either verbally
or non- verbally?
Feedback to group:
Talk about the above items or anything else of general interest that you observed about the
process.
Developing the managerial appraisal process
Alan L. Joplin
The major objective of this appraisal process is to
improve managerial performance. A basic assumption
to this process is that performance improvement is
most effective when specific efforts are made to achieve
it.
Traditionally, appraisal has been thought of in terms
of a rating process. It is my belief that appraisal
should be much more than a rating process. Properly
conceived and implemented, appraisal is a work planning
and review process cooperatively carried out by the
staff member or manager being appraised and the person
responsible for making the appraisal. It is a Joint
effort to achieve the best results and to evaluate
the results in a fair and objective manner. The appraisal
process cannot be viewed as an end in itself. It is
a means for motivating self-improvement and increasing
the effectiveness of managerial performance. Performance
guidelines must be established and utilized for the
purposes of self-evaluation and to aid the managers
who serve as appraisers.
Appraisal records and actions must be open to the individual
managers concerned and that all managers should feel
free to question an appraiser's judgments. And, further,
a system of review should be established to resolve
any such disagreements. The appraisal process always
must strive to facilitate the performance of managerial
roles rather than hinder the carrying out of managerial
responsibilities and duties.
An effective managerial appraisal process must:
1. Have clear objectives and criteria
2. Be purposeful and put to use
3. Not instill fear in the appraise
4. Be cooperatively planned with cooperation procedures
5. Be constructive
6. Be continuous
7. Serve as guidance for the managerial staff
8. Focus upon managerial behaviors and needs
9. Take into account Superior Subordinate relationships
10. Recognize individual factors in a manager's background
11. Judge managerial effectiveness in the light of the
organization's objectives and the job expectancies
of the various managerial personnel.
The appraisal process described below has attempted
to incorporate the above philosophy and objectives.
Appraisal of managerial performance operational procedures
The primary objective of the appraisal process is to
improve managerial performance. Secondary objectives
of the appraisal process are to identify personnel
with the capacity and readiness for assuming greater
responsibility and to establish compensation that is
partially based upon performance.
As a result of these objectives, it is anticipated that
the organization will have more efficient operations,
greater manager-ship potential of the staff, more competent
performance, better communications, and a better product.
This appraisal process will enable managers to see the
requirements of their jobs more clearly, know the limits
of their freedom of action, help them attain self-improvement,
and let them know " where they stand " in
the performance of their Jobs.
Established job expectancies shall be used as a basis
for self appraisal and for appraisal by the appraise
and appraiser. In addition, developmental objectives
that are cooperatively and jointly defined by the appraise
and the appraiser shall be generated in the appraisal
process. All managers should be aware that appraisal
will be related to job expectancies and the cooperatively
defined developmental objectives. Appraisal can be
most objective and impartial when job expectancies
are clearly established and understood in advance.
The appraisal process entails four basic steps:
1. Self appraisal
2. Mutual establishment of developmental objectives
3. Interim progress meetings. Yearend appraisal.
An overview of the appraisal process is presented in
Figure 4.
Step One: Self Appraisal
Much research has gone into the study of the characteristics
of a good manager. What has been identified is the
fact that successful managers are the result of developing
their own unique style of management. There are certain
activities in which all managers are involved, i.e.,
planning, directing, controlling, yet the method by
which these are accomplished is the choice of the manager.
Therefore, to bring about improvement in the performance
of the manager, it is necessary for the manager to
know and understand as much about himself as possible.
In other words, the manager becomes his own consultant,
and the beginning of the improvement cycle begins with
the recognition of the need to know one's self better
as well as the need for improvement in one's own performance
of the management functions. Therefore, the improvement
of performance will come about only when managers
examine their own behavior
The difficulty in the self-appraisal process is the
reluctance the appraise will have in exposing his perceived
weaknesses to his superiors. To honestly assess one's
strengths and weaknesses in relation to job expectancies,
one needs to recognize that it is done in the spirit
of advance planning of work, rather than merely submitting
to taking a personal test.
The need for identifying improvement of performance
and growth of the appraise as the primary objective
of the appraisal process is critical to the self-appraisal
technique. The appraise should recognize that self-appraisal
is truly a part of helping him perform better and may
lead to greater opportunity, commendation, compensation,
and promotion.
As a guide to the appraise in the self-appraisal process,
the following factors should be examined in relationship
to the job expectancies.
1. Policies Procedures and Practices: Does the appraise
display the skills and knowledge necessary to effectively
recommend, establish, and administer policies, procedures,
and practices in his areas of responsibility?
2. Supervision: Does the appraise effectively demonstrate
and apply the necessary skills and knowledge of supervision
to the units and personnel assigned to him?
3. Planning: Does the appraise effectively design,
implement, and evaluate the objectives of his units?
4. Decision Making: Does the appraise display the
knowledge and skills required to effectively make decisions
in terms of degree of independent action and effect
on others.
5. Interpersonal Relations: Does the appraise display
positive attitudes in meeting with and influencing
staff?
6. Physical. Personnel. and Financial Resources: Does
the appraise demonstrate effective use of skills and
knowledge in cost/effectiveness in the utilization
of physical property, personnel, and financial resources?
7. Creativity: Does the appraise show imagination
and/or creative ability in the identification of problems
and the application of solutions to administrative
and/or academic problems.
In addition, it is suggested that the appraise examine
the preceding seven factors with respect to the following
considerations:
What is my general attitude towards these factors?
Do I work with and through others in accomplishing these
factors?
Do I establish objectives for myself in each of these
factors?
Do I follow through on plans and actions?
Do I evaluate the results of my plans and actions?
Do I get along with subordinates?
Am I amenable to constructive criticism?
Do I generate confidence among my subordinates?
Do I attempt to develop those under my direction?
Do I delegate responsibility and work?
Do I accomplish my own objectives?
Am I a good organizer?
Emphasis in self-appraisal always should be in terms
of job expectancies and actual performance. The primary
purpose of the appraisal process is improvement of
performance through the strengthening of personal competencies.
Step Two: Establishment of Developmental Objectives
At the beginning of the fiscal year a conference should
be held between the appraise and the appraiser. The
objective of the Conference is to establish consensus
between the appraise and the appraiser in regard to
the understanding of job expectancies and to establish
developmental objectives.
To accomplish this objective, the appraiser should be
familiar with the subordinate's job in order to help
in the establishment of the developmental objectives.
Develop-mental objectives should contribute to the
improvement of prime responsibilities that have been
delineated as job expectancies.
Once consensus has been reached concerning job expectancies
and the develop-mental objectives have been established,
discussion should center upon a plan for achieving
the developmental objectives. The accomplishment of
the objectives should not be viewed as the sole responsibility
of the appraise. The appraiser should establish with
the appraise a commitment to work cooperatively in
order to achieve the developmental objectives.
It should be clearly understood that the appraiser is
committing himself and the resources at his disposal
to help the appraise achieve the year's developmental
objectives. Thus, the appraisal process is truly a
cooperative performance developmental unit.
Step Three: Interim Progress Meetings
Once the appraiser and appraise have reviewed the job
expectancies, established developmental objectives
for the year, and agreed upon a plan of action to accomplish
the objectives, it is time to set the plan into operation.
It is recommended that the plan incorporate a time
table that will enable the appraise and appraiser to
establish some degree of progress and accomplishment
by a specified date.
During step three, the appraisal and supervisory functions
become closely tied together. The appraiser and appraise
work together toward the achievement of the develop-mental
objectives and job expectancies. It is in step two
that the mutually defined action plan, in which roles
and responsibilities of the appraiser and appraise
are specified, is implemented. The appraise will know
the extent and type of supervisory help the appraiser
will be providing, and the appraiser will have a clear
understanding of his commitment toward the needs of
the appraise.
It is expected that the appraise and appraiser will
be periodically evaluating the progress of the appraise
toward his job expectancies and developmental objectives.
In fact, agreement should have been reached in step
two as to how often the appraise and appraiser will
meet to assess progress and discuss problems which
may arise.
The primary objectives of step three are to:
1. Review how well the appraise is progressing along
the pre-established plan.
2. Identify any areas in which the appraise may be having
problems and cooperatively work out plans to overcome
these problems.
3. Adjust the plans as conditions change and warrant
adjustment.
The periodic progress review meetings are an essential
part of the overall appraisal process. It is during
these meetings that the appraiser demonstrates his
role of support and commitment in helping the appraise
attain the developmental objectives. It is therefore
critical that the supportive role be consciously followed.
Every effort must be made to help the appraise accomplish
the agreed upon developmental objectives.
As the appraise and appraiser continue from one progress
meeting to another, they are working toward the annual
appraisal meeting, which is the next step.
Step Four: The Appraisal Meeting
The primary objective of the appraisal meeting is to
determine as objectively and fairly as possible the
work competence of the appraise. It is not a negative,
faultfinding experience which dwells upon identifying
areas of performance which were not satisfactory. The
appraisal meeting is an informal discussion between
the appraise and appraiser centering upon results and
potential improvement.
The appraise enters the meeting capable of evaluating
his own performance and is fully aware of how he did
during the year in relation to his job expectancies
and agreed upon developmental objectives. The appraiser
is interested in the areas where the appraise had difficulties,
in terms of providing assistance and support in helping
the appraise achieve his job expectancies and agreed
upon developmental objectives rather than in finding
fault with the individual and his performance.
The appraise should self-appraise his own performance
prior to the appraisal meeting. The appraise should
make an honest effort to assess his accomplishment
of the job expectancies and developmental objectives
Likewise, the appraiser must be prepared for the appraisal
meeting. It is important to recognize that not all
appraisal meetings will go smoothly.
Some appraises will be uncomfortable others will not.
The nature of the appraisal meeting is to review the
year's accomplishments and to share common viewpoints
and, if necessary, to communicate disagreement. If
the appraise and appraiser have worked closely and
cooperatively during the year, there is less likelihood
of conflicting opinion arising during the appraisal
meeting. The appraiser should objectively seek to find
out if the job expectancies were lived up to and if
the developmental objectives were accomplishes. Basically,
the appraiser seeks to find out if behavioral change
occurred in terms of the appraises managerial performance
and what measures are available to show these accomplishments
or lack of accomplishment.
The objective of the appraiser is to complete a thoughtful
review of the appraises job expectancy performance
and achievement towards developmental objectives, keeping
in mind what help and support were given to the appraise.
The appraiser may have discovered as a result of the
appraisal review that he has given less help and supervision
to the appraise than he should have. This may account
for some of the deficiency in the subordinate's work.
For the appraiser to admit that he may have been at
fault will usually increase the rapport between the
appraise and the appraiser.
The appraiser and appraise will utilize a form established
to record the results of the appraisal meeting. The
form permits the appraiser and appraise to evaluate
by established performance factors on a 6 point scale
relating to job expectancies and provides for additional
information concerning achievement of developmental
objectives. (See form in Appendix B.)
In addition to the appraisal of performance, consideration
shall be given to the individual's potential for promotion
to greater responsibilities. The appraiser will indicate
on the appraisal form, based upon his judgment and
careful examination of the appraises performance, if
the appraise has the potential for immediate promotion,
eventual promotion, or is not profitable
The appraisal form also provides for an indication of
any action that should be taken. One action is that
the appraise should maintain his position. However,
he may need help or his work may be unsatisfactory
an require probationary status. This would be indicated
on the form. Secondly, he may be transferred to another
position. This can be prompted by the need for a less
demanding job or to utilize his skills and talents
in a more effective manner. The third possible action
would be to replace the individual either by terminating
his employment, demoting him to a lesser position,
or promoting him.
The appraiser will make a recommendation as to which
action should be followed. The appraise signs the appraisal
form indicating that he has seen and discussed it with
the appraiser. His signature in no way constitutes
agreement. Should the appraise and appraiser reach
a stage of disagreement concerning the appraisal recommendations,
the appraise shall request a conference with the appraiser's
immediate supervisor. If the immediate supervisor cannot
resolve the disagreement, he shall refer the problem
to the CEO for further action. At this time the manager
will form a work groups composed of himself, a representative
chosen by the appraiser and a representative chosen
by the appraise which will settle the disagreement.
Generally, the appraise and appraiser will discuss the
areas in which improvement can and should be made.
They will reach some general conclusions and identify
possible developmental objective areas. It is a opportunity
for the appraiser to encourage the appraise to begin
thinking about his self appraisal for the upcoming
year. Thus, the appraisal process is a cycle which
finds the manager constantly striving to maintain managerial
performance at a high level.
The operational procedure for staff appraisal as discussed
her will have several benefits for the organization.
Assuming that the appraisal process is carefully implemented
and consistently applied to all managerial personnel,
the following benefits can be expected.
1. More effective management will identify areas
of meet for more effective management. It shows where
management is being highly effective and it makes possible
further progress.
2. Better management information will enable all
managers to be better informed about the current status
of managerial performance in the school system. It
provides insight into conditions which need improvement.
It can provide information regarding manager-ship for
long-range planning and results.
3. Change of attitude will give individuals a positive
outlook on appraisal and see it as a means of help
as support.
4. Morale builder lets the manager know how he is
doing, recognize his accomplishments, and possess a
sense of well being in that the manager knows his superiors
are interested in his work and his future.
5. Clearly defined responsibilities it explains to
the managers the job expectancies, so that through
the conferences between appraise and the appraiser,
a clearer understanding of job responsibilities results.
This process attempts to build upon the good points
of these many processes. As with all appraisal techniques,
this one must undergo a period of adjustment. It is
expected that refinements can and will be made. It
is assumed, however, that if the basic steps outlined
in this process are followed, it is reasonable to expect
that the participating managers will improve their
managerial performance and consequently raise the overall
effectiveness of to organization.
Some guidelines for giving feedback
Readiness of the receive:Give the feedback only when
there are clear indications the receive is ready to
be aware of it. If not ready, the receiver will be
apt not to hear it or to misinterpret it.
Descriptive not interpretive: Giving feedback should
be like acting as a "candid camera." It is
a clear report of the facts, rather than your ideas
about why things happened or what was meant by them.
It is up to the receiver to consider the why or the
meanings or to invite the feedback giver to do this
considering with him.
Recent happening: The closer the feedback is given to
the time the event took place the better. When feedback
is given immediately, the receiver is most apt to be
clear on exactly what is meant. m e feelings associate
with the event still exist so that this, too, can be
part of under-standing what the feedback means.
Appropriate times:Feedback should be given when there
is a good chance it can be used helpfully. It may not
be helpful if the receiver feels there is currently
other work that demands more attention. Or, critical
feedback in front of others may be seen as damaging
rather than helpful.
New things: There is a tendency in giving feedback to
say only the obvious. Consider whether the thing you
are reacting to really may be new information for the
receiver. Many times, the thing which may be helpful
new information is not simply a report of what you
saw the receiver doing, but rather the way it caused
you to feel or the situation you felt it put you in.
Changeable thing:Feedback can lead to improvements only
when it is about things which can be changed.
Not demand a change: The concept of feedback should
not be confused with the concept of requesting a person
to change. It is up to the receiver to consider whether
he wishes to attempt a change on the basis of new information.
If you wish to include your reaction that you would
like to see him change in certain ways, this might
be helpful. What is not apt to be helpful is to say,
in effect, " I have told you what's wrong with
you, now change. "
Not an overload: When learning how to give feedback,
we sometimes tend to overdo it. It's as though we were
telling the receiver, " I just happen to have
a list of reactions here and if you'll settle back
for a few hours I'll read them off to you." The
receiver replies, " Wait a minute. I'd prefer
you gave them to me one at a time at moments when I
can really work on them. I can't handle a long list
all at once."
Given to be helpful: You should always consider your
own reasons for giving your reactions. Are you trying
to be helpful to the receiver? Or, are you really just
getting rid of some of your own feelings or using the
occasion to try to get the receiver to do something
that would be helpful for you? If you are doing more
than trying to help the receiver with feedback you
should share your additional reasons so he will know
better how to understand what you are saying.
Giver shares something: Giving feedback can sometimes
take on the feeling of a " one-ups-manship "
situation. The receiver goes away feeling as though
he's "not as good as the giver, because it was
his potential for improvement that was focused upon.
The giver may feel in the position of having give a
lecture from the lofty pinnacle of some imaginary state
of perfection. The exchange often can be kept in better
balance by the giver including some of his own feelings
and concerns.
Some Guidelines for receiving feedback
State what you want feedback about: Let the giver
know specific things about which you would like his
reactions.
Check what you have heard: Check to be sure you understand
what the giver is trying to say. Because the topic
is your own behavior, you may tend to move toward thinking
about the meanings of the feedback before you are sure
you are hearing it as it was intended.
Share your reactions to the feedback: Your own feelings
may become so involved that you forget to share your
reactions to his feedback with the giver. If he goes
off not knowing whether or not he has been helpful
and how you now feel toward him, he may be less apt
to give you feedback in the future. The giver needs
your reactions about what was helpful and what was
not so as to know he is improving his ability to give
you useful feedback.
Top fifteen time wasters
Experience with managers at various levels in diverse
organizations has led to a clear picture of time wasters
which afflict managers universally. There are, of course
exceptions. Yet five time wasters nearly always rank
at or near the top of every group's list:
1. Telephone Interruptions
2 . Drop in Visitors
3. Meetings ( both scheduled and unscheduled)
4. Crises
5. Lack of Objectives, Priorities and Deadlines
These are close followed by another group of five time
thieves:
6. Cluttered Desk and Personal Disorganization
7. Ineffective Delegation and Involvement in Routine
and Detail
8. Attempting too Much at Once and Unrealistic Time
Estimates
9. Confused responsibility and Authority
10. Inadequate, Inaccurate and Delayed Information
Depending upon the group, particular manager-ship styles
an organization characteristics, other time wasters
often include:
11. Indecision and Procrastination
12. Lack of or Unclear Communication and Instructions
13. Inability to say "No"
14. Lack of Controls, Standards and Progress Reports
15. Fatigue and Lack of Self-Discipline
The factors that managers themselves say are preventing
them from being as effective as they would like. It
therefore seems logical to develop criteria with which
to measure the degree to which these factors are operating
in the daily lives of managers. On the following page
are listed some of the criteria by which the operative
impact of these time wasters can be measured.
Some of the criteria may be identified simply by their
existence (written goals, objectives and deadlines).
Others will be identifiable by their incidence as recorded
in a weekly time log (interruptions by telephone and
drop in visitors, doing a task which could have been
delegated, agreeing to a request to which you should
have said "No"). Either by
simple conversion to weights or by arbitrary decision,
percentage rates of effectiveness called "quotients')
can be determined from which relative progress in improving
managerial effectiveness can be measured.
Measuring the impact of time-wasters
on managerial effectiveness
1. Telephone Interruptions
Number of calls taken unnecessarily.
Number of minutes spent beyond reasonable requirements.
Number of calls placed unnecessarily.
Extent to which objectives were achieved.
2. Drop in Visitors
Number of visitors which should not have been received.
Number of minutes spent beyond reasonable expectations.
Extent to which objectives were achieved.
3. Meetings
Ratio of optimum to actual time spent in meetings.
Extent to which predetermined objectives were achieved.
Participants' views on both of above criteria.
4. Crises
Existence of written strategy for crisis management
by Categorizing types of crises anticipated and having
a written plan for handling each.
Percentage of potential crises anticipated and prevented
or effectively minimized.
Number of cases of " over reaction " (treating
problems unnecessarily as crises)
5. Each of objectives priorities and deadline (daily
plan) cluttered desk an personal disorganization
Ineffective Delegation and Involvement in Routine and
Detail
Percentage of progress toward objectives in measured
period.
Existence of priorities and deadlines for all objectives.
Percentage of deadlines met in measured period.
Number of priorities achieved daily.
6. Cluttered desk and personal organization
Responsibility assigned in secretary's job description
for orderliness of manager's desk, papers, files, appointments
calendar, meetings etc.
Effective daily plan in writing and monitoring process.
Amount of time lost due to searching for misplaced documents,
mistakes made or deadlines missed due to dis-organized
desk and/or person.
7. Ineffective delegation and involvement in routine
and details
Ratio of actual to potential delegations during logged
period.
Amount of time spent on routine matters which could
have been delegated.
Amount of time spent unnecessarily involved in detail.
Ratio of refusals of inappropriate requests for information,
opinions, suggestions or decisions, to the total number
of such requests from subordinates (upward delegation)
or from associates.
Common flaws in appraisal system " halo effect
"
Effect of past record
Compatibility
Effect of regency
The one asset man
The blind spot effect
The high potential effect
The noncompliance bias
Common flaws in appraisal system " norms effect
"
The boss is a perfectionist
The contrary person
The oddball effect
Membership in a weak team
Guilt by association effect
Dramatic incident effect
Rating performance on basis of traits
The self comparison effect
The advantages of appraisal by objectives
1. Subordinate knows in advance the basis on which he
will be judged.
2. Superior and subordinate agree on what the subordinate's
job really is.
3. Strengthens the superior subordinate relationship.
4. A self-correcting characteristic which tends to help
people set targets that are both challenging and reachable.
5. The unit provides a method of spotting training needs.
6. This appraisal approach treats as a total process
a person's ability to see an organizational problem,
devise ways of attacking it, translate his ideas into
action, incorporate new information as it arises, and
carry his plan through to results.
Some Questions About Performance Appraisal
Alan L. Joplin
1. Why do people resist appraisal?
a. From the perspective of doing appraisal?
Lack of skill or knowledge of how to do it.
Fear of scarring people.
Fear of possible confrontation.
Fear of how the results will be used against them.
Takes to much time.
Lack of confidence in the process.
Fear of being appraised by appraise
b. From the perspective of receiving appraisal?
Fear of being judged negatively.
Lack of confidence in the appraiser.
Fear of how the results will be used.
Fear of knowing self.
Lack of confidence in own ability
Doubt about the significance of the whole process.
Fear of prejudice.
2. What are the advantages/disadvantages
a. Informal/Subjective appraisal?
Advantages:
Don't know that it is happening to you
Relaxed environment facilitates communications
More personal
Immediate feedback
Ongoing process.
Disadvantages :
Don't know that it is happening to you
Done irregularly and can be forgotten
Inadequate or no documentation
Situation oriented, narrow in scope
Not measurable.
b. Formal/Objective appraisal?
Advantages:
Opens the door for two way communications
Could be motivational
Documented
Regularly scheduled
Requires appraiser to be better prepared by planning
Measurable
Disadvantages :
Finality of process
Builds barrier walls
Takes too much time
3. How can barriers to appraisal be overcome?
Training of appraisers
Communicate clearly positive and real objectives of
the organization and the appraisal unit
Emphasize the staff development aspect
Create a climate for open, two-way communication
Have staff involvement in the development of the process
Follow through
Build incentive system into the unit
Encourage self-appraisal
4. Develop the ideal appraisal unit.
State the objectives of the organization
State the objectives of the appraisal unit
Make it a two-way communications process
Train appraisers
Interpret individual objectives in the light of organizational
objectives
Have responsibilities mutually understood; allow for
discussion and negotiation; mutual goal setting process.
Research findings on positive feedback
or knowledge of results
Feedback increases both individual and group performance.
The amount of feedback is related to the level of performance
achieved.
Personnel receiving no feedback generally decrease in
performance.
Feedback, the quality of feedback influences performance.
Feedback, the more specific, relevant, and timely the
feedback, the greater the positive effects on performance.
Feedback, feedback is best effective when directly relevant
to a task.
Rapidity of learning is related to the preciseness of
the feedback.
No feedback results in low confidence and hostility
whereas free feedback results in confidence and friendliness.
Ambiguity decreases with better information and innovative
behavior increases and ritualism decreases.
Feedback results in clearer role expectation with increases
in group satisfaction and effectiveness.
When an appraise expects favorable feedback, critical
appraisal has a negative effect on attitudes.
Feedback of itself does not contribute to improved performance
as much as objective setting does.
Feedback does improve performance when it is used in
the objective setting process.
Feedback of results has no influence on performance
unless the
feedback is used as a means of comparing performance
with previously established objectives or standards.
Feedback, when provided by a superior, communicate interest
in the subordinate's job or the subordinate himself.
When given in a disagreeable manner, feedback may create
resentment and hostility and perhaps contribute to
reduced performance.
Research findings on participation
The influence an individual has on decisions that affect
him, can affect performance levels and Job satisfaction.
There is a positive relationship between participation
and the job performance of rank and file employees.
Participation results in greater acceptance of decisions
and with proper manager-ship can results In decisions
of high quality.
Participation can strengthen agreement among participants
and carry over this mutual understanding past the initial
discussion period.
Job satisfaction increases with participation.
Research findings on participation and job performance
show conflicting results. Some studies are positive
in the relationship others show no relationship, however,
there are no studies that suggest participation will
decrease performance.
When the individual does have some control over both
the means of reaching his objectives and the manner
in which they are set, this is legitimate participation
and higher performance may result.
A positive relationship between participation and performance
involved the actual establishment of objectives by
the individual: thus, the improvements in performance
could be the result of objective setting itself rather
than of participation.
Participation may favorably affect turnover and absenteeism.
The individual better understands what is expected of
him or her when he or she participates in shaping performance
objectives.
More participation leads to more discussion, which may
in turn lead to better problem identification.
Research findings on setting objective
Personnel initially tend to set performance Objectives
at higher levels than previous performance levels
and tend to keep them higher.
The level of aspiration is not as high in late Periods
of personnel are unsuccessful in achieving initial
objectives.
Setting objectives increased the level of performance
best when the task was difficult.
The process of objective setting has a large Effect
on performance than does knowledge of Results.
Employees' performance is higher when they have specific
objectives to achieve rather that Being told to "
do their best."
Personnel given more time to do a task tool more time
and set easier goals than subjects given the minimum
amount of time necessary for achieving objectives,
according to their abilities.
Performance dissatisfaction depends on the relationship
of actual performance to one's Performance objectives.
Objectives and intentions are the primary motivational
determinants of task performance and that external
incentives influence behavior through their effects
on objectives and intentions.
An approach to objectives determination
1. What are the major problems?
Willingness to admit problem exists
Ability to recognize a problem when you see one
Ability to define problems with clarity.
2. What are the major pressures?
From the community
From staff, professionals and others
3. What are the major aspirations?
Anticipation of concerns before they become full-blown
problems or pressures.
Long range needs
Professional contributions.
Objective development in five easy steps
1. Find the objective.
A .Basically three type
1. Maintenance: A repetitive ongoing objective necessary
to the achievement of organization's common objectives.
2. Developmental:
a. Problem Solving, which leads to the correction of
a discrepancy in the current level of performance in
the maintenance objective
b. Creative, which will lead to improved or expanded
unit results.
3. Personal: Designed to enhance the individual manager's
improvement of his professional or managerial skills
and career growth.
B. Determine the key result area for the department,
unit, position or individual.
C. Identify measurement factors for each key result area.
D. Establish an objective for each measurement factor.
2. Setting the objective/Good objectives should be:
Supportive of an accountability.
Measurable in either quantifiable or qualitative terms
Attainable and realistic.
A jointly developed commitment between an individual
and the supervisor.
Challenging.
Established to reflect the results expected on the job.
Consistent with the organization hierarchy of objectives
The basis foe a sound performance review.
Mutually understood and accepted.
A key factor in the improvement of performance and management
development.
3. Validate the objectives
Do they describe results instead of activities.
Does the manager clearly understand he is expected to
meet his objectives.
Have the risk, assumptions, and changing requirements
been checked and analyzed to see where faults or failures
can occur with implementation.
The supervisor commits himself to helping the individual
achieve his objectives by providing required resources,
facilities, materials, methods, people and management
to reach the desired objective.
4. Implementing the objectives.
Develop the pans and activities necessary to begin and
carry out action needed to meet the objective.
Select the best alternative that will maximum effectiveness
at a specified cost and will maximum cost at a specified
level of effectiveness.
Determine a time schedule
5. Evaluating and reporting the status of the objective.
Formulate evaluation-don't drive on a flit tire.
Summative evaluation.
Did the unit accomplish its objectives?
Did the unit operate as it was designed too?
To what extent are the results of the unit attributable
to the unit?
Is the unit plan adequate to effectively and efficiently
achieve its objectives?
What judgments can be supported by the evaluation findings?
Twelve criteria for assessing
the quality of objectives and goals.
1. Understandable: Clear, unambiguous Language.
2. Behavior Oriented: Describes behavior expected.
3. Measurable: Outcomes assessment is feasible.
4. Operational: Defined in terms of operations.
5. Challenging: Stimulates higher level of behavior
outcomes.
6. Realistic: Achievable in terms of resources, time,
talents, and techniques available.
7. Significant: Spells out important or relevant outcomes.
8. Developmental: Continuity of growth over time and
in different contexts.
9. Comprehensive: Embraces All Important Outcomes.
10. Balanced: Priorities Set For Multiple Objectives.
11. Accurate: Reflects True Intent Of The Organization.
12. Brief: Uses As Few Words As Possible To Communicate.
Basic concepts behind establishing
performance objectives:
1. The clearer the idea one has of what one is trying
to accomplish, the greater the chances of accomplishing
it.
2. Progress can only be measured in terms of what one
is trying to progress toward.
Performance objectives for each unit, department or
individual provides the basis For establishing the
authority and accountability relationships.
Task and maintenance functions for observations
Task functions
1. Initiating: Proposing tasks or goals; defining a
group problem; suggesting a procedure for solving a
problem; suggesting other ideas for consideration.
2. Information or opinion seeking: Requesting facts
on the problem; seeking relevant information; asking
for suggestions and ideas.
3. Information or opinion solving: Offering facts;
providing relevant information stating a belief; giving
suggestions or ideas.
4. Clarifying or elaborating: Interpreting or reflecting
ideas and suggestions; clearing up confusion; indicating
alternatives and issues before the group; giving examples.
5. Summarizing: Pulling related ideas together; restating
suggestions after the group has discussed them.
6. Consensus Testing: Sending up " trial balloons
" to see if group is nearing a conclusion; agreement
has been reached.
MAINTENANCE FUNCTIONS
7. Encouraging: Being friendly, warm and responsive
to others; accepting others and their contributions;
listening; showing regard for others by giving them
an opportunity or recognition.
8. Expressing group feelings: Sensing feeling, mood,
relationships within the group; sharing his own feelings
with other members.
9. Harmonizing: Attempting to reconcile disagreements;
reducing tension through "pouring oil on troubled
waters"; getting people to explore their differences.
10. Compromising: Offering to compromise his own position,
ideas, or status) admitting error; disciplining himself
to help maintain the group.
11. Gate keeping: Seeing that others have a chance
to speak; keeping the discussion a group discussion
rather than a l, 2, or 3 way conversation.
12. Setting Standards: Expressing standards that will
help group to achieve applying standards in evaluating
group functioning and production.
Process issues
1. Integration of new members into the group, and the
acceptance of group members. (If I feel that I am accepted,
it is easier to accept other members).
2. How do we handle technical issues and still deal with
each other as persons. For example, when we run into
difficulty over a piece of technical information there
is a tendency to react to what was said and to forget
that there was a person saying it.
3. How do we use experts outside or inside our groups.
There is a tendency of group members to feel less expert
when there is a visiting expert around. There is more
tolerance in accepting his ideas without checking it
out with someone else. (There is always this process
issue of who is an expert, and how are we going to
deal with persons "who have all the answer's.)
4. How well is the group doing in reaching it's goal.
How productive is the group.
5. Who controls what goes on; the organization of the
group. If managership is shared you have the feeling
of interdependence.
6. How do we handle process comments. In small groups
there is a tendency to apologize for making a process
comment because we do not think of these comments as
task relevant. However, these statements are task relevant
because they have a great deal to do with how well
groups can do on a task.
Process pitfalls
What kinds of things go on between group members that
interfere with group process? Some of these are:
Talk Fast-interrupting the speaker.
Cutting Off
Pairing Off- one person is talking and two people pair
up against Jumping in too quickly
Putting people on the spot- condemning people.
Being evaluative- condemning; not after constructive
criticism.
Not building on comments-lead balloon abandonment
Group dynamics
Eight general principles which can be applied to make
the group process of learning or problem solving more
efficient:
Atmosphere
Improving physical setting in which group meets or works;
give a feeling of equality among the group members.
Size of group should be kept small (less than 1215);
Principle 1: The effective problem solving group has
a physical' atmosphere conducive to problem orientation
and is large enough to permit maximum experience background
and small enough to permit maximum participation and
minimal threat.
Threat Reduction
Insecurity from presence of strangers
Transference of hostility from previous experiences
give out name tags if group small enough; first name
in large letters; Have people tell about themselves
in some detail, or three humorous sentences telling
important things about self.
Principle 2: Pleasant interpersonal relationships
reduce threat and permit shift of orientation from
interpersonal problems to group goals.
Distributive Managership
Various functions of manager-ship shared by group members.
Causes increased confidence that each person has in
himself as a manager. Creates confidence in him on
the part of the group;
Principles 3: Distribution of manager-ship maximizes
problem involvement and permits maximum distribution
of member growth.
Goal Formulation
A group that cannot show each member that he has something
to contribute and something to gain from membership
is an unproductive one and should not continue.
Principle 4: Explicit goal formulation increases the
group's feelings and increases involvement in the decision
making process.
Flexibility
Interest may change between planning for meeting and
actual meeting; plans should not be sacred;
Principle 5: Groups should formulate agenda which
should be followed until new goals are formulated on
the basis of new needs.
Consensus
No formal voting, because this splits group and destroys
its cohesiveness; the members continue to discuss the
issue until it becomes obvious that everyone is satisfied
with the solution, no formal vote required then;
Principle 6: The decision making process should continue
until the group formulates a solution upon which it
can form a consensus.
Process Awareness
Increasing sensitivity to: The roles that different
members play in the group, the needs of various members,
their own needs in relationship to those of the others;
Can learn to be more perceptive by paying close attention
to the processes of interaction within the group and
relating those observations to one's own feeling;
Principle 7: Awareness of group process increases
the likelihood of goal orientation and allows for the
more rapid modification of goals or sub-goals.
Continual Evaluation
Of whether the activities that the group is engaged
in are those for which it wants or not; Calls for continuous
evaluation; Changes suggested by evaluation process
should be made, otherwise members lose interest and
group disintegrates; Impossible under autocratic managership
because of fear to express selves; Therapeutic catharsis
denied under autocratic managership;
Principle 8 : Continual evaluation of goals and activities
permits intelligent modification of the problem solving
process at any stage of decision making.
The Goals Of Managership
Alan L. Joplin
A manager must have sensitivity to the situation.
Managership is largely situation; therefore, a manager
must be both rationally and emotionally sensitive to
his situation at all times. He must also understand
the interpersonal relationships, whether they are with
an individual, a group, an organization, or a whole
community. He must acquire the knowledge, skill, and
attitudes necessary to be sensitive.
A manager understand himself. A manager has both power
and influence in many different situations; therefore,
he must understand his effect on others and his own
feelings and motivations. He must have self-insight.
A manager must feel personally secure. Managership
requires us to be able to work effectively with other
people without the constant necessity for self justification.
This requires interpersonal skill, the ability to listen
to others, and the capacity to refrain from using interpersonal
relationships to meet personal needs. Assaults that
are made on a manager are many and varied; they arise
from fear, envy, ambition, and selfishness. They also
arise from honest disagreement on goals, policies,
procedures, and methods. The manager has to give a
great deal of help and support. He must feel secure
to give it and to receive it.
A manager must be an effective problem solver. All
managership relationships, individual, group, and organizational,
require a systematic approach to problem solving. Mastery
of this rational or scientific approach is essential
so that the manager does not flounder around in confusion
when he meets a problem. Simplicity is the key, as
it is in so many fields. Identify the problem, break
it down into its elements; seeking the information
that is necessary to its solution; doing what is necessary,
according to the size and complexity of the problem,
to analyze the elements; and then shape and test the
various solutions and plans. The ability to understand
and live through the application of this approach is
an achievement towards which the manager must aspire.
A manager must be a decision maker. The whole management
process can be viewed as analyzing problems and making
decisions. Every decision carries an element of risk.
The manager must run the risks of his own judgments.
He must originate and innovate solutions, but he needs
to do more; he must push plans through to successful
execution. He must cope with the unexpected and the
unpredictable through originality and ingenuity, applied
with courage.
A manager must be flexible. Since managers function
in complicated situations that are continuously changing,
they must be flexible to changing demands. Role flexibility
means the ability to function in many different roles
and carry out these roles effectively.
Glossary of Terms
Alan L. Joplin
Affective Objectives are associated with the emotions,
feelings, and values of the learner.
Autocratic Management is an organizational structure
in which information flows "from the top down"
and each person is told what to do. Managers are bosses
in the traditional sense of the term.
Accountability The ability to show that one has done
what he said he would do.
Alternate plan A secondary strategy to achieve the
objective.
Anecdotal data gathered from the impressions and subjective
reports of relevant people.
Appraisal Evaluation, both internal and external.
This step is helpful and necessary in setting new goals
and objectives.
Autocrat a manager who is using a high task orientation
and a low relationships orientation in a situation
where such behavior is inappropriate and who is, therefore,
less effective; perceived as having no confidence in
others, as unpleasant, and is interested only in the
immediate task.
Baseline data collected at the start of a program or
treatment which furnishes a point of comparison for
assessing results at a later time.
Basic style the way in which a manager behaves as measured
by the amount of task orientation and relationships
orientation he/she uses. The four basic styles are
integrated, dedicated, related, and separated.
Benchmarks objectives which are reviewed periodically
to measure progress toward the larger goal. These
could be considered approximations of the larger goal.
Benevolent autocrat a manager who is using a high task
orientation and a low relationship orientation in a
situation where such behavior is appropriate and who
is, therefore, more effective; perceived as knowing
what he/she wants and how to get it without creating
resentment.
Bureaucrat a manager who is using a low task orientation
and a low relationships orientation in a situation
where such behavior is appropriate and who is, therefore,
more effective; perceived as being primarily interested
in rules and procedures for his/her own sake, as wanting
to control the situation by his/her use, and as conscientious.
Behavioral Objectives specify learning outcomes in precise,
measurable terms.
Cognitive Objectives place primary emphasis on the mental
or intellectual processes of the learner. There are
six levels of cognitive objectives: knowledge, comprehension,
application, analysis,-thesis, and evaluation.
Climate the distinctive atmosphere of every organization;
a dominant mood that prevails. The climate is naturally
affected by how staff members relate to each other;
by what people feel they can (and cannot) do or say.
Co-worker a person with whom a manager works who is
neither his/her superior nor subordinate.
Compromiser a manager who is using a high task orientation
and a high relationships orientation in a situation
that requires a high orientation to only one or neither
and who is, therefore, less effective; perceived as
being a poor decision maker, as one who allows various
pressures in the situation to influence him/her too
much, and as avoiding or minimizing immediate pressures
and problems rather than maximizing long-term production.
Concept a statement of how a plan will be achieved;
a strategy.
Constraint anything that will make it impossible to
accomplish a performance requirement. Only if there
are no possible methods and means for achieving a performance
requirement is a constraint evident.
Continuous loop process a process that is self-correcting
based on its performance or nonperformance. (in general
system theory, this is frequently analogous to an "open
system.")
Control group a group which does not get the experimental
treatment. It should be equivalent to the experimental
group (which gets the treatment). The control group
enables the effect of the treatment to be separated
from incidental effects of time, maturation, etc.
Controls checks that alert management to potential
failure. Budgets, reports, time deadlines, standards
of performance, feedback and personal observation are
controls and should be built into original plans.
Cost benefit analysis an analysis relating costs of
a program (or an outcome) with the benefits to be accrued
from the successful achievement of the outcomes. In
its simplest form, cost benefit analysis asks the two
simultaneous questions of "what do I give?"
And "what do I get?" There are tools for
determining actual or predicted cost benefit, including
the tools of "planning programming budgeting system
(ppbs)," and systems analysis .
Criterion referenced item a test or evaluation item
referring to a specific behavior or performance, ideally
derived from a needs assessment and system analysis.
It provides a realistic alternative to "norm referenced"
test items.
Decision making a course of action whereby one makes
a choice between two or more alternatives.
Developmental Objectives help an individual attempt
new methods and develop new systems, ideas, and improvements.
Democratic Management calls for rule by the majority;
if fifty-one percent of the people vote one way, their
voice prevails.
Dedicated style a basic style with more than average
task orientation and less than average relationships
orientation.
Deserter a manager who is using a low task orientation
and a low relationships orientation in a situation
where such behavior is inappropriate and who is, therefore,
less effective; perceived as uninvolved and passive
or negative.
Developer a manager who is using a low task orientation
and a low relationships orientation in a situation
where such behavior is appropriate and who is, therefore,
more effective; perceived as having implicit trust
in people and as being primarily concerned with developing
them as individuals.
Direct services those services given in face to face
contact with clients, i.e.., Counseling, teaching a
class.
Dominant elements those elements in a particular situation
which make the strongest demands on a manager's basic
style.
Driving forces those which "push" in a particular
direction. They tend to initiate change and keep it
going.
Educational system planning the identification of all
requirements for meeting identified, documented needs.
It includes the use of the tools associated with needs
assessment and system analysis. When it is completed
all the requirements and an identification of possible
solution alternatives for designing, implementing,
and achieving a responsive and successful educational
system are present.
Essential elements of information (eei) the external
information, phrased in question form and used in conducting
planning.
Effectiveness the ability of an organization to achieve
its objectives with the minimum cost.
Element strength the relative strength of a dominant
element in a particular situation expressed on a scale
of one to ten.
Ethics the study of conduct between individuals.
Evaluation a judgment or decision as to the degree
to which a program, service, or project has achieved
its objectives at any given time, or of the degree
to which it is congruent with the overall goals or
values from which it ensues.
Evaluation of relevance obtaining feedback on the extent
to which a project meets needs.
Execution the "doing" step; the fourth step
of the management process.
Executive a manager who is using a high task orientation
and a high relationships orientation in a situation
where such behavior is appropriate and who is, therefore,
more effective; perceived as a good motivating force
and a manager who sets high standards, treats everyone
somewhat differently, and prefers team management.
External strategies involves actions taken by an organization's
staff in conjunction with or to influence outside groups,
individuals, agencies, institutions, who are part of
the force field and have an impact on whether or not
the organization reaches its goals.
Feasibility capability of being carried out or completed
successfully with predicted success significantly greater
than chance.
Feedback the process of transferring output back into
input. It is the process in which the factors that
produce a result are themselves modified, corrected
or strengthened by that result.
Force field the "life space" of a project.
This includes the physical, social and psychological
forces which the actors (staff, clients, etc.) Perceive
as affecting the organization or institution.
Formal organization a group of offices and roles exemplified
in the table of reorganization and established for
a specific goal or purpose.
Formative evaluation the determination of "in
process" or ongoing activities and results, including
a determination of the extent to which processes and
procedures are working or have worked in meeting overall
objectives and requirements. It also supplies criteria
for "in process changes " in an operating
system.
Function analysis the analysis of each of the elements
(functions) in the mission profile which shows what
is to be done to complete each function. Function
analysis is like a miniature mission analysis; that
is, specific to a smaller part of the overall problem.
Like the mission analysis, it includes performance
requirements (specifications for the successful accomplishment
of each function in the mission profile). Function
analysis, however, depicts the sub junctions in the
order and relationship necessary to successfully accomplish
each function.
Function flow block diagram the diagrammatic representation
of functions that show the order and relations among
functions. The order is shown by the numbers and the
solid lines.
Function one of a group of related outcomes (or products
or sub products) contributing to a larger outcome (or
product).
Goal attainment scaling a measure of treatment outcome
based on the degree to which predetermined treatment
goals have been achieved.
Goal(s) something that an organization is trying to
accomplish. They express broad and general aims.
Grapevine the informal communication network of an
organization, known for its ability to cut across all
levels of a structure and for its speed.
Humanistic Organizational Management is an organizational
structure which views a community as all those individuals
having a vital interest in the educational system and
considers the educational manager an effective human
being whose primary function is to facilitate the educational
process.
Humanistic management system a collection of values
based on the belief that the individual seeks to become
more of a human being.
Indirect services which affect clients indirectly,
such as consultation to teachers, research, education
through mass media.
Influence the ability to cause things to happen indirectly,
through persuasion or coalition with others.
Informal feedback data about the results of staff actions
which are picked up casually and in daily interactions,
including impressions and communications.
Informal organization the clustering of individuals
into spontaneous groups by choice rather than by assignment
in the organization.
Integrated style a basic style which combines more
than average task orientation and more than average
relationships orientation.
Integration of feedback integration refers to the change
in an organization as a result of the feedback inquiry
into its behavior or direction.
Internal strategies have to do with activities within
the organization.
Leader a person seen by others as being primarily responsible
for achieving group objectives.
Leader effectiveness the extent to which the leader
influences his/her followers to achieve group objectives.
Leadership a process in which an individual takes initiative
to assist a group to move toward production goals that
are acceptable.
Management the coordination of all resources through
the process of planning, organizing, leading, and controlling
in order to attain stated objectives.
Management by objectives the setting of objectives,
the utilization of these objectives in the management
process, and the measurement of both individual and
organizational performance.
Management of conflict the idea that conflict is a
valuable source of untapped human energy and can be
utilized to improve the atmosphere for growth of adults
in an organization.
Management a process for meeting needs.
Manager a person occupying a position in a formal organization
who is responsible for the work of at least one other
person and who has formal authority over that person.
Managerial effectiveness the extent to which a manager
achieves the output requirements of his/her position.
Maintenance Objectives help an individual meet his regular,
ongoing, recurring jute activities.
Managerial skills three skills required for managerial
effectiveness; situation management, situation sensitivity,
and style flexibility.
Managerial style an assessment of the appropriateness
and, therefore, the effectiveness of a particular basic
style in a situation.
Methods means analysis the determination of possible
methods and means (strategies and tools) for accomplishing
each performance requirement and a listing of the relative
advantages and disadvantages of each.
Mission analysis a set of four related tools used for
analyzing the requirements of a system that would,
if satisfied, meet the identified need. The analysis
identifies requirements (or specifications) for meeting
the needs and the interrelations among the requirements;
it also identifies potentially useful methods and means
for meeting each requirement. The four related tools
of system analysis are mission analysis, function
analysis, task analysis, and methods means analysis.
These tools are used to define the requirements (and
thus define the problem) in increasing levels of detail
and refinement.
Mission profile the process for identifying, for the
problem selected, the elements of (1) where are we
going? (2) what criteria will we use to let us know
when we have arrived? And (3) a management plan to
show what functions must be performed to get us from
where we are to where we are to be. This management
plan is usually depicted in the form of a flow chart
called a mission profile.
Mission objective an objective that measurably states
the specifications for determining when we have successfully
reached where we should be. This performance objective
has four elements (1) what is to be done to demonstrate
completion? (2) by whom is it to be demonstrated? (3)
under what conditions is it to be demonstrated? And
(4) what criteria will be used to determine if it has
been done?
Mission the overall job to be done to meet the identified
and documented needs.
Missionary a manager who is using a high relationships
orientation and a low task orientation in a situation
where such behavior is inappropriate and who, therefore,
is less effective; perceived as being primarily interested
in harmony.
Need(s) are a deficiency. They suppose a lack of something
requisite, desirable, or useful, a condition requiring
supply or relief. The needs statement of an organization
may include a problem in the community which should
be rectified, a deficiency which needs to be filled,
or it may state a requirement for continued growth.
Needs assessment methods provide the basis for determining
what types of services are required to serve the community
most effectively. These methods fall into three broad
categories (1) social and health indicator approaches;
(2) community survey approaches; (3) non survey techniques.
Objectives(s) are the specific aims of an organization.
An objective indicates by when, how much, how well
the goal is to be achieved, and how it is to be measured.
While a goal may indicate a general direction, objectives
provide specific targets. A specific statement of achievement
that defines and communicates what will be different,
by when and how measured. effectiveness standards
which are as specific, as time bounded and as measurable
as possible.
Obstacles include the restraining forces which are
keeping the desired action from happening and the driving
forces which are operating to strengthen opposing actions.
That, forces or factors which hold the program back,
impedes its progress or moves it in the direction opposite
of organizational goals.
Objectives Hierarchy is an organization of educational
objectives with the basic beliefs about the aims of
education being at the top or first.
Indicators of Attainment help to increase the precision
and validity of the direct measures within learning
objectives.
Organizational-wide Objectives are the broad qualitative
statements of purpose directed toward the ultimate
aim of the school system. There are two types, instructional
and supportive.
Operational gaming a variation of simulation usually
characterized by the assumption of roles by people
in a given (hypothetical) context or situation.
Organization a group of people bound together in a
formal relationship to achieve organizational goals.
Organizing for action planning an experience in advance,
deciding on a strategy, and allocating five resources
(manpower, money, material, time and authority), beginning
with the target objective to be achieved and plotting
backward in order to foresee all possible pitfalls.
Outcome evaluation assessing whether stated goals and
objectives are being met.
Parallel functions that can go on simultaneously or
in the absence of a required order of accomplishment.
Performance requirement a measurable specification
for outcome. There may be two types of performance
requirements that tell what the end product will look
like or do, and another type that identifies specifications
that are "given" relative to the manner in
which the product is to be produced.
Personal effectiveness the extent to which a manager
achieves his/her own private objectives.
Performance Objectives (for management) state what a
person is expected to do, for what he is accountable,
and for what he will be evaluated.
Problem Solving Objectives help an individual solve
a current management problem.
Participative Management calls for individual responsibility
and accountability. The designated leader works closely
with all members of his group in encouraging their
active participation in the functions of management,
but he has the final authority for decision making.
Plan a projection of what is to be accomplished to
reach valid and valued goals.
Planning the analysis of relevant information from
the present time and the past and an assessment of
probable future developments.
Planning cycle the ongoing function of planning in
an organization, utilizing all five steps of the management
process.
Power the ability to compel things to happen, or to
cause them to happen by an order or directive.
Primary source immediately identified resources for
the gathering of information in order to answer eei
questions.
Prioritize to rank in order of importance.
Problem a documented discrepancy selected for resolution.
Procedural evaluation keeping track of how accurately,
efficiently and effectively a project's strategies
are being implemented.
Procedural feedback involves analysis of the efficiency
and effectiveness of strategies.
Process the application of the ways and means for achieving
any result or outcome.
Program an integrated activity or set of activities,
including the combination of personnel, equipment,
facilities, finances, etc., Which together constitute
an identifiable means to accomplish some general goal
or set of goals. A set of related organizations, resources,
and/or activities directed to the accomplishment of
a defined set of goals. A program may encompass a
number of projects.
Program development a cyclical system of program planning
and assessment. It describes sequential steps which
can be applied to a variety of programs (particularly
those in human services) to improve their efficiency,
effectiveness and relevance. The key to this process
is self study.
Program evaluation review technique (pert) one of several
network based tools for planning the implementation
of an educational system. These tools, including cpm
(critical path method), are timelines, sequential graphic
representations of milestones or events which can show
the consequences of changes in implementation activities,
including changes in the categories dollars, time,
and resources.
Project a time limited, integrated activity or set
of activities funded as a unit. Together these activities
constitute an identifiable means to accomplish some
task or tasks.
Punitive management system a collection of values held
by administrators who use fear tactics such as threats
to job security, coercion, loss of status, questioning
of loyalties.
Qualitative feedback non numerical feedback which relies
on clinical analysis or description.
Quantitative analysis/evaluation numerical information
gathered in terms of a specific hypothesis.
Random selection which is done on the basis of chance
rather than by design in order to obtain an unbiased
result.
Related style a basic management style with less than
average task orientation and more than average relationships
orientation.
Relationships orientation the extent to which a manager
has personal job relationships; characterized by listening,
trusting, and encouraging.
Reliability the degree to which a measurement or instrument
can be relied upon to give consistent results.
Research design a detailed, comprehensive plan for
carrying out a research or other project; an experimental
procedure which is amenable to statistical analysis.
Resource any force which furthers the realization of
an organizational goal or objective. It may be a person,
an institution, a physical force, a psychological force,
a source of information or education, money, etc.
Restraining forces are analogous to barriers or walls.
They prevent or retard movement. They do not "push
back," but only "hold back."
Sample a limited number of observations, usually taken
systematically or at random, made for the purpose of
inferring some attribute of the larger whole.
Secondary source clues or signs that may indicate answers
to essential questions when direct access to the question
is denied.
Self-actualization a structure of human needs in which
the last stage is characterized by a need to become
one's self.
Self study getting feedback on the outcomes of actions
taken in regard to programs and modifying these actions
on the basis of this feedback.
Separated style a basic management style with less
than average task orientation and less than average
relationships orientation.
Series functions related to one another in linear and
dependent fashion. An example might be Christmas tree
lights.
Simulation the building and using of a model of a real
or predicted event or situation.
Situation elements five elements through which all
of the situation demands on a manager are expressed
organization, technology, superior, coworkers, and
subordinates.
Situation management skill in changing the managerial
style so that effectiveness increases.
Situation sensitivity appraisal of situation elements
in terms of task orientation and relationships orientation
demands.
Statistically significant difference a difference so
great it would occur by chance less than 5 percent
of the time (.05 level) or 1 percent of the time (.01
level).
Statistics a collection of quantitative data. A branch
of mathematics dealing with the collection, analysis,
interpretation, and presentation of masses of numerical
data. The purpose of such analysis is usually to make
a prediction about a larger number of occurrences or
an ongoing process, on the basis of sample observations.
Strategy maps out how one will proceed, what the staff
members actually do, how much time they will spend
doing it, and where they should be at a given time.
The strategy should specify who, what, when, why.
Style appraisal skill ability to appraise others management
style correctly.
Style awareness the degree to which a manager can appraise
his own style correctly.
Style distortion perceiving more or fewer occurrences
of a particular style than actually exist.
Style drift varying one's basic style behavior inappropriately
so that managerial effectiveness
Decreases.
Style flexibility skill in varying one's basic management
style behavior appropriately to a changing situation
so that managerial effectiveness increases.
Style resilience maintaining a single, appropriate,
basic style based on all styles used.
Style rigidity maintaining a single inappropriate basic
style so that managerial effectiveness decreases.
Subordinate a person over whom a manager has authority
and for whose work he/she is responsible.
Summative evaluation the customary mode of educational
evaluation wherein final outcomes or results are determined.
Superior a person having authority over a manager and
responsibility for his/her work.
System approach a process by which needs are identified,
problems are selected, requirements for problem solution
are identified, solutions are selected from alternatives,
methods and means are obtained and implemented, results
are evaluated, and required revisions to all or part
of the system are made so that the needs are eliminated.
System the sum total of parts working independently
and working together to achieve required results or
outcomes, based upon needs.
Systems analysis a tool for the selection of the most
effective and efficient alternative actions based on
alternative resource cost and benefit and a consideration
of uncertainty.
Task orientation the extent to which a manager directs
his/her own and his/her subordinate's efforts; characterized
by initiating, organizing and directing.
Task analysis the lowest level of system analysis.
Task analysis shows, usually in tabular form (rather
than flow chart form), the units of performance associated
with each sub function.
Team a group of people united in the pursuit of a common
goal for the satisfaction of their personal needs.
Team building a broad label attached to many strategies
in which the participants are members of a single work
group.
Ultimate Objective is a brief, concise statement of
the educational institutional purpose as derived from
its philosophy.
Unit Objectives are statements of purpose that pertain
to various educational and supportive units. They are
directed toward system wide objectives.
Validity the degree to which a measurement accurately
reflects the item being measured.
Management Primer: A Guide To Basic Management Concepts.
Alan L. Joplin, B.A., M.A., M.A.T., M.S.
Managers must base their decisions on comprehensive
organizational goals and objectives. The decisions
made and their rationale should be important to the
entire management team; therefore, it is essential
that the manager understands the point of view and
attitudes of others.
Mutual understanding will lead to organizational growth.
If any members of the management team does not understand
the significance of a decision as it relates to policies,
objectives and strategies, etc., then there is a high
probability of a weakening of the infrastructure of
the organization. The lack of understanding is not
always a result of poor communication. It can also
result in part from not knowing that a different point
of view exists. This situation implies that little
team activity exists. At this point a definition for
decision making should be formulated. One simple definition:
Decision making is the process of choosing a specific
course of action from among many alternatives and determining
ways and means (problem solving) for accomplishing
the course of action decided.
The most common method of problem solving is known as
the scientific method. It is a means of bringing order
to the solution of a problem. Here are two approaches,
both using the scientific method: one complex, for
complex problems, the other simple for simple problems.
The more complex one follows. It is difficult to set
up a standard procedure of analysis that will be suitable
for every problem. A checklist of things to look for
can be helpful, and a series of questions can also
be used as a reminder of areas to investigate.
Questions for consideration:
1. Have all critical factors been evaluated?
2. Are all requirements of the individual and the
group being met?
3. Is the leadership and organization adequate to maintain
control and to carry out plans and strategy?
4. How are the activities to be governed?
5. How does the organization propose to meet objectives?
6. Why does the organization exist?
7. What are the critical factors?
8.Will the decision cause the furtherance of the objectives?
In very complex problems, all of the critical factors
would be involved; it would be necessary therefore
to include them when the diagnosis is
How are the activities to be governed?
The analysis begins with sizing up and continues on
to objectives, policy, and ending with decision making.
A center is critical or not depending upon the scope
of the problem and its relationship to the other diagnostic
centers; that relationship being indicated by the connections
or paths between them.
This is an approach to analysis which has some flexibility,
an analytical framework, a way of thinking about the
relationships between the various factors that bear
upon the success of the organization.
1. SIZING-UP: As one sets out on the diagnostic cycle,
you should size up the situation first by deciding
what areas are to be analyzed and in what order. Analysis
centers that seem to be critical should be identified
at the beginning. This is the preliminary determination
of procedure that can be altered as the analysis
proceeds. The purpose of selecting diagnostic centers
is to aid in gaining an overview of the total situation
and in deciding what approach to take so that problems
can be pin pointed and resolved efficiently.
In this process it is important to understand that some
problems require a complete examination of every factor
and, therefore, need to be subjected to the complete
diagnostic cycle, while others are only concerned with
part of the diagnostic process. Less critical centers
are passed, and only the critical centers such as Leadership,
Organization, and Interpersonal Behavior, which are
essential to the decisions, are included. On the other
hand, in a problem on control it may be found that
the factors have important implications in the area
of objectives, policy, planning and strategy. Here
the diagnostic path would not include leadership, organization
and interpersonal behavior. In this phase, there is
an examination of the evidence so that the relationship
of facts may be determined, some pre judgments on possible
cause and effect situations may be made, and decisions
on what additional information or facts would facilitate
the decision-making process may be made. Which of the
diagnostic centers should be considered first? Sizing-up
is the initial move to determine the answers.
2. OBJECTIVES: Why does the organization exist?
What are the objectives of the organization?
Is there a general recognition of, or agreement on,
the organizational objectives? Should the objectives
be adjusted or changed? Is the organization now embarked
upon a course of action that will meet the objectives?
The objectives of an organization must be defined in
workable or useful terms so that they can be related
to decisions. Broad definition can be somewhat useful.
More helpful, however, is the definition of objectives
in specific terms inclusive of services, quality and
the like. Thus if the original question, "Why
does the organization exist?" is repeated, the
specific answer is, "To offer a unique type of
service." Objectives are not sacred; they can
be flexible to meet the dynamics of the organizational
environment.
3. POLICY FORMATION - PLANNING STRATEGY: Part of the
diagnostic technique is to determine whether fundamental
policies are involved--whether the present policy is
adequate or appropriate or whether a formal policy
exists at all. Policy, in fact, should be consistent
with the objectives.
1.They establish the general ground rules for meeting
the objectives.
2. They should be related to the objectives.
3. They should not be formulated in a vacuum.
4.They should not be altered without determination of
the effects upon the objectives.
5.If the objectives are changed, then the policy should
be reviewed.
6.The interrelationships between objectives and policy
are direct and critical.
7.When policy and objectives are at odds, the true desires
of the organization are not represented.
Once objectives are confirmed and compatible policies
established, the organization is ready to examine the
planning and strategy used to carry out the policies.
1. How does management propose to meet the objectives?
2. What is the strategy to be used?
3.What plans are being made to effectively use
organizational resources?
Strategy is dependent on available resources and is
controlled by the manager. Planning is the determination
of how best to carry out the strategy.
4. CONTROL COMMUNICATION: The control and communication
networks of an organization are as the nerves to the
human body.
Attempt to answer the following:
1. How are the activities of the organization to be
governed?
2. What techniques and devices have been established
so that the manager will know what is going on in the
organization?
The following situations can be apparent:
1.In some situations, management is oblivious to the
need for
control and communication.
2.In some instances, management may assume that controls
or communications are operating when actually they are
not.
3.Finally, the controls may be so confining that the
plans and
strategies cannot be effected.
The communications aspects are elusive and more difficult
to evaluate even though they are an integral part of
the control system within an organization.
Types of Communication (The Network):
1. Reports, written memoranda, official notices.
2.Informal conversations, the grapevine. (more effective
in control systems than written word).
3. Wordless action, feedback, lack of communication,
action operational.
4. Evaluate the financial resources and cost.
CONSIDER THE HUMAN FACTOR WHEN RECOMMENDING CHANGES.
Other areas for consideration will surface. Each
area must be related to the other, with a continual
assessment of the best combination. The decision must
finally be made based on the various possibilities
that have been developed in the analysis. The decision-making
process is sometimes described in terms of models that
contain inputs, variables, and outputs.
This means that the results or outputs of a decision
are not always predicted; they will vary from what
is anticipated because of the variables. Once the decision
has been made, one should size up the situation again
to make certain that vital information has not been
omitted. However, changing variables may be the problem
that demands a management decision, at which point
the whole or a part of the diagnostic procedure should
be repeated.
The more simple approach, which incorporates much of
the information in the more complex approach, has four
basic steps.
The basic steps are:
1. Locate and define the problem.
2. Formulate hypotheses.
3. Classify, collect and analyze data.
4. Draw a conclusion.
When a new system or procedure is introduced without
explanation, the action may be interpreted by employees
based on their personal frames of reference; and the
manager is subject to base decisions or misinterpreted
communications. The controls and communications involved
should be examined to determine their adequacy and
to see if they are appropriate.
Appropriateness is determined by:
1. The controls aiding in carrying out the plans and
strategies.
2.Their suitableness for the existing organization and
leadership.
5. LEADERSHIP - ORGANIZATION: Are the leadership and
organization adequate to maintain control to carry
out the plans and strategy? Control and communication
are so closely integrated that there may be difficulty
in deciding which center should be diagnosed first.
It could be that it is futile to investigate controls
and communications without relating them to the organization.
Under consideration are:
1. Line-staff relationships.
2. Informal organization arrangements.
3. Spans of control.
4. Centralization versus decentralization.
5. Delegation of responsibility.
6. Authority.
7. Democratic versus autocratic leadership.
8. Other aspects of organization and leadership.
Significant to the process are the following questions:
1.Is the organization structure best for the types of
controls desired?
2.Are communications facilitated or restricted by the
structure?
3.Are the controls established mainly in the chief executive
officer's hands?
4. Are there regulatory devices all through the organization?
6. INTERPERSONAL BEHAVIOR: Here a diagnosis of the
human element is carried on. Established by people
and operated by people, these factors are the least
predictable and spell the difference between success
or failure of an organization. The human element affects
the decisions. In the area of human behavior, the
logical decision may be the incorrect decision; this
is the case when one makes decisions that involve the
human factor.
7. SOCIAL AND ECONOMIC SETTING: The external environment--those
things outside the organization setting--is an integral
and important part of the analysis.
Environment inclusions:
1. Legal requirements as established by laws.
2. Social mores of society.
3. Economic conditions.
The external environment surrounds the organization,
and since the organization is dependent on society,
it must continuously refer to the outside world. The
social and economic setting constitute an eighth critical
center. As the analysis is done, one finds paths leading
out to the center--continuous deviations from the internal
diagnostic cycle to the external critical center.
As shown in Figure 3, Critical Diagnostic Centers
and Paths affects the various critical
center.
The objectives should be compatible with the external
environment. It is critical to check on the outside
forces. Direct attention from each specific diagnostic
center looks outside for conditions and situations
in the environment that affect the ultimate decision.
8. DECISION MAKING: When making an analysis, one should
keep the outcome in mind--a recommendation for action.
The analyzer should pause at each critical center
to see if there are facts and other information that
will aid in making the decision. The analysis process
includes asking the appropriate questions as seen on
the diagnostic diagram.
In addition related factors should be examined.
1.Assess risks involved in one course of action as compared
with another.
2. Predict obstacles to making the various plans.
Locate and Define the Problem
: Problems grow out of
a need or difficulty that someone observes as experience,
and often this need or difficulty is experienced in
attempts to solve other problems. The problem must
be defined and located.
Formulate Hypotheses
:Hypotheses are tentative solutions
to a problem. They give a sense of direction in an
attempt to solve the problem. In many instances, one
hypothesis will be substituted for another.
Collect, Classify and Analyze Data
: The value of a
study depends upon the effectiveness and objectivity
with which data are collected, classified, and analyzed.
When data have been classified, it must be analyzed
and interpreted to determine whether it substantiates
or refutes the hypothesis. If it does not, then the
hypothesis must be discarded and another formulated.
The collection of additional data must be undertaken
in an effort to see if the rejection of the hypothesis
is truly the proper course of action.
Draw Conclusion
: This is the final step in the solution
of a problem. The critical element is the stating
of the conclusion which agrees with the data. This
step also requires considerable examination and study.
CRITICAL INCIDENT ANALYSIS STEPS
Step I:Clearly and completely identify the current issues,
problems, or questions.
Step II: List all the facts/information pertinent to
each of the above.
Step III:List the critical problem, issue, or question
demanding immediate attention.
Step IV:List the alternative courses of action and the
advantages and disadvantages of each.
Alternative A:
Alternative B:
Alternative C:
Step V:Draw conclusions, make recommendations/decisions
(justify your position).
Step VI:What is the fundamental management problem,
issue, or question underlying the current problem?
